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the  ~ 

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PRINCETON,  N.  J.  ** 

Division Lrr. . L ..... SJ'  J.. 

Section . 

A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


/ 


♦ 


4 


♦ 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  •  BOSTON  •  CHICAGO 
ATLANTA  •  SAN  FRANCISCO 


MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON  •  BOMBAY  •  CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 


THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


BEFORE  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 


FRANK  PIERREPONT  GRAVES,  Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR  OF  THE  HISTORY  AND  PHILOSOPHY  OF 
EDUCATION  IN  THE  OHIO  STATE  UNIVERSITY 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

1909 


All  rights  reserved 


Copyright,  1909, 

By  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 

Set  up  and  electrotyped.  Published  February,  1909.  Reprinted 
October,  1909. 


Noriaoob 

J.  S.  Cushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.8.A. 


TO 

ALBERT  ROSS  HILL,  LL.D. 


PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI 


PREFACE 


The  present  publication  is  intended  to  meet  the 
demand  for  a  text-book  or  reference  work  that  will  give 
a  comprehensive  account  of  the  history  of  education 
before  the  day  of  the  monastic  schools.  The_aim  has 
been  to  present  sufficient  material  to  mark  the  most 
significant  movements,  and  disclose  the  underlying 
principles,  without  entering  into  unnecessary  detail,  or 
dwelling  upon  matters  but  remotely  related  to  the  edu¬ 
cational  problems  of  to-day.  While  there  has  been  no 
attempt  to  adduce  exhaustive  proof  of  the  various  theses 
maintained,  it  is  hoped  that  enough  has  been  presented 
to  make  them  acceptable  for  the  occasion,  and  to  serve 
as  an  interpretative  basis  of  further  study. 

An  effort  has,  moreover,  been  made  to  see  that  all 
interpretations  are  based  upon  historical  data  collected 
from  the  sources ;  and  direct  quotation  of  this  material 
has  been  liberally  made  throughout.  Also,  to  supply 
deficiencies  in  either  facts  or  interpretation  and  stimu¬ 
late  the  student  to  research  or  further  reading,  refer¬ 
ences  to  the  sources  and  to  collateral  works  have  been 
given  at  the  end  of  each  chapter.  I  believe  that  teach¬ 
ers  should  encourage  their  pupils  to  use  this  part  of 

vii 


Vlll 


PREFACE 


the  book  especially,  if  for  no  other  purpose  than  to  find 
a  different  emphasis  and  set  of  generalizations  from 
those  of  the  text,  and  so  realize  that  no  one  form  of 
treatment  can  be  considered  infallible  or  final. 

The  point  of  view  and  method  of  presentation  in  this 
book  have  been  worked  out  in  the  class-room  and  in 
extension  lectures.  While  the  treatment  is  not  limited 
to  a  history  of  schools  and  educational  methods,  a  defi¬ 
nite  attempt  has  been  made  to  center  the  discussion 
about  the  schools  and  render  the  subject  pertinent  and 
profitable  for  the  teacher  of  the  present  and  future.  It 
is  especially  desired  that  it  may  prove  a  stimulus  and 
help  to  the  further  study  of  education. 

My  general  attitude  is,  with  Davidson,  to  regard  edu¬ 
cation  as  a  species  of  ‘  conscious  evolution,’  and  to  trace 
throughout  the  period  covered  the  development  of  indi¬ 
vidualism.  Accordingly,  I  have  endeavored  to  point 
out  the  traditional  forms  of  expression  that  have  grown 
up  among  the  various  peoples  and  become  fixed  by 
social  habit,  and  the  lack  of  progress  that  has  ensued, 
until,  through  some  conflict  of  traditions,  the  individual 
is  enabled  to  select  a  new  pathway  of  expression.  By 
thus  adopting  a  general  point  of  view,  I  have  hoped  to 
bind  together  all  nations  and  periods  in  a  connected 
account  of  world  progress. 

The  method  of  approaching  educational  history  that 
is  recommended  in  Chapter  I  was  first  suggested  to  me 


PREFACE 


IX 


by  a  former  pupil  of  Professor  Paul  Monroe.  It  closely 
resembles  the  plan  adopted  in  the  Text-book  in  the 
History  of  Education  that  has  since  been  issued  by  that 
well-known  authority.  Others,  notably  Laurie  and 
Williams,  seem  to  have  used  a  similar  method  more  or 
less  consistently,  and  the  idea  was  outlined  and  followed 
to  some  extent  by  Schmidt  in  his  Geschichte  der  Pada - 
gogik.  Experience  has  shown  that,  in  a  more  or  less 
modified  form,  this  is  a  natural  and  effective  procedure. 

In  order  to  present  the  education  of  each  period  in 
its  proper  setting,  and  show  how  its  ideals  arose,  a  brief 
account  of  its  political  and  social  history  has  first  been 
given.  Such  knowledge,  I  have  found,  cannot  be  taken 
for  granted. 

I  have  to  acknowledge  indebtedness  to  many  persons, 
including  those  who  have  previously  written  on  this  range 
of  educational  history.  Nearly  every  chapter  of  the 
book  has  been  submitted  to  some  authority  in  the  par¬ 
ticular  field,  and  some  of  the  grosser  errors  eliminated 
in  this  way.  Those  that  remain  are  probably  due  to 
my  own  carelessness  or  immunity  to  advice.  Sugges¬ 
tions  on  portions  of  the  manuscript  have  been  made  by 
Professors  C.  A.  Ellwood  of  the  University  of  Missouri, 
J.  H.  Breasted  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  A.  V.  W. 
Jackson  of  Columbia  University,  C.  M.  Sharpe  of  the 
Missouri  Bible  College,  and  J.  R.  Smith  and  S.  C.  Derby 
of  the  Ohio  State  University.  A  wider  reading  of  the 


X 


PREFACE 


manuscript  has  been  made  by  Professor  Jesse  H.  Cour- 
sault  of  the  University  of  Missouri,  Professor  Arthur  E. 
Davies  of  the  Ohio  State  University,  and  Professor 
William  G.  Tousey  of  Tufts  College;  and  their  keen, 
but  sympathetic,  criticism  has  been  of  especial  value. 
I  am  also  indebted  to  my  wife  for  careful  reading  of  the 
proof  and  for  timely  suggestions. 

F.  P.  G. 

January  i,  1909. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I 

PAGE 

The  Study  of  the  History  of  Education  .  .  .  i 

The  Value  of  the  History  of  Education.  How  to  Study  It. 

PART  I 

NON-PROGRESSIVE  EDUCATION 
CHAPTER  II 

Savages  or  Nature  Peoples . 8 

Nature  of  Primitive  Society.  Purpose  of  Primitive 
Education.  Its  Organization  and  Content.  Its  Method. 
Summary  of  Results. 


CHAPTER  III 

Barbarism  or  Early  Civilization . 20 

The  Movement  from  Nature  to  Culture. 


CHAPTER  IV 

Egypt . 22 

Historical  Development.  Effect  of  the  Nile  upon  Eco¬ 
nomic  Development.  Religion  and  Ethics.  Classes  of 
Society  and  Position  of  Women.  Cultural  Development. 
Education. 


xi 


Xll 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  V 

Babylonia  and  Assyria . 43 

Historical  Relations.  Social  Conditions.  Religion  and 


Ethics.  Culture. 

Education. 

Phcenicia 

CHAPTER  VI 

•  •••••»•  5^ 

Achievements. 

Character.  Education. 

China  . 

CHAPTER  VII 

. 55 

National  Conditions.  Religion  and  Ethics.  Culture. 


Education. 

CHAPTER  VIII 

India 

. 77 

Effect  of  Environment.  Religion.  Social  Conditions. 


Education. 

CHAPTER  IX 

Persia  . 

........  91 

Natural  Influences.  Government.  Religion  and  Ethics. 
Education. 

CHAPTER  X 

Character  of  the  Earliest  Civilization  .  .  .104 

Transitional  Stage.  Restricted  Ideals.  Occupational 
Content.  Memory  Method.  Sacerdotal  Organization  of 
Schools.  Static  Results. 


CONTENTS 


Xlll 

PART  II 

THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  INDIVIDUALISM 
IN  EDUCATION 

CHAPTER  XI 

Israel  and  Jud^a  (The  Jews) . no 

Survey  of  Jewish  History  and  Religion.  Development 
of  Israelite  Religion.  Educational  Ideals.  Pre-exilic 
Education.  Post-exilic  Education.  Educational  Method. 

Effect  of  Jewish  Education  on  Progress. 

CHAPTER  XII 

Sparta  and  Athens  (The  Greeks) . 138 

Physical  and  Social  Factors  in  the  Progress  of  the 
Greeks.  Outline  of  Greek  History.  Education  in  Pre¬ 
historic  Greece.  Older  Education  of  the  Historic  Period. 
Spartan  Education  and  Its  Aim.  Infancy.  Boyhood  and 
Adolescence.  Youth  and  Young  Manhood.  Citizenship. 
Education  of  Women.  Merits  and  Defects  of  Spartan 
Education.  Athenian  Education  in  the  Old  Period. 
Childhood.  Boyhood.  Adolescence.  Youth.  Citizen¬ 
ship.  Education  of  Women.  Character  of  the  Old  Athe¬ 
nian  Education.  Athenian  Education  in  the  New  Period. 

The  Sophists.  Reactionary  Forces.  The  Mediators. 
Socrates.  Plato.  The  Republic.  Criticism  of  The  Re¬ 
public.  The  Laws.  Influence  of  Plato.  Aristotle.  The 
Ethics  and  The  Politics.  Criticism  of  The  Ethics  and  The 
Politics.  Influence  of  Aristotle.  Triumph  of  Individual¬ 
ism.  Later  Greek  Education.  Philosophical  Schools. 
Rhetorical  Schools.  Universities.  Extension  of  Hellenic 
Culture.  Survey  of  Greek  Education. 

CHAPTER  XIII 

Rome  and  the  Roman  World . 230 

Survey  of  Roman  History.  Practical  Aim  of  Education 
in  Early  Rome.  Informal  Acquisition  of  Abilities  and 


XIV 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Virtues.  Imitative  Method  of  Training.  Effect  of  the 
Education  of  Early  Rome.  Absorption  of  Greek  Culture. 
Schools  of  the  Hellenized  Roman  Education.  Elementary 
Schools.  Grammar  Schools.  Rhetorical  Schools.  Edu¬ 
cation  beyond  the  Rhetorical  Schools.  Education  of 
Women.  Education  Subsidized  and  Systematized.  Decay 
of  Education.  Effect  of  Roman  Education  upon  Civiliza¬ 
tion. 

CHAPTER  XIV 


Early  Christianity . 

Beginnings  of  Individualism  among  the  Jews,  Greeks, 
and  Romans.  Larger  Ideals  of  Christianity.  Vicious 
Conditions  that  Christianity  Needed  to  Reform.  The 
Earliest  Christian  Education.  The  Catechumenal  Schools. 
Amalgamation  of  Christianity  with  Graeco-Roman  Culture. 
The  Catechetical,  Episcopal,  and  Cathedral  Schools.  Op¬ 
position  of  Christianity  to  the  Graeco-Roman  Culture. 
Influence  of  Greece  and  Rome  upon  Christianity.  Effect 
of  Organized  Christianity  upon  Society.  The  Monastic 
Schools.  Summary  of  Pre- mediaeval  Progress. 


Index  . 


.  299 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


EDUCATION  BEFORE  THE  MIDDLE 

AGES 

CHAPTER  I 

THE  STUDY  OF  THE  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

A  well-known  philosopher  1  has  treated  the  history  of 
education  as  an  account  of  the  latest  stage  in  the  pro¬ 
cess  of  evolution.  All  the  development  of  the  universe 
that  had  taken  place  in  the  stages  prior  to  the  advent  of 
man  might,  he  thought,  be  considered  as  the  result  of 
a  sort  of  unconscious  education.  Or  better,  education 
might  be  regarded  as  ‘  conscious  evolution,’  —  the  stage 
where  the  process  came  to  completer  consciousness  of 
itself  and  sought  to  guide  itself  more  definitely.  In 
other  words,  at  this  point  man  might  be  said  to  take 
himself  in  hand  and  endeavor  to  direct  his  living  toward 
a  higher  development  or  *  ideal  end.’  From  such  a 

1  Thomas  Davidson  in  A  History  of  Education.  Cf.  Schmidt,  Geschichtc 
dcr  PadagogikyYol.  I,  p.  i:  “Das  Wort  Entwicklung verrat  das Geheimnis 
alles  Lebens,”  etc.  Cf.  also  Hegel’s  view  of  history  as  ‘  theophany,’  Phi¬ 
losophy  of  History ,  Introduction,  III. 


B 


I 


2 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


It  affords  a 
broad  sur¬ 
vey,  and 
shows  tv  e 
impo  tance 
ox  tne 
teacher. 


point  of  view,  the  purpose  of  education  is  to  help  along 
this  latest  and  highest  movement  in  the  working  out  of 
the  world.  The  teacher’s  function  thus  becomes  the 
most  important  of  all  in  society,  and  the  history  of  edu¬ 
cation  surveys  a  wider  field  than  any  other  study  in  the 
curriculum. 

The  Value  of  the  History  of  Education. — This  is  an 
inspiring  interpretation,  but  it  is  hardly  necessary  to 
plunge  very  deeply  into  speculation  or  to  study  the 
history  of  education  before  man’s  advent,  in  order  to 
perceive  the  dignity  and  importance  of  the  teaching 
profession,  or  to  realize  the  wide  range  of  perspective 
afforded  by  a  study  of  educational  history.  In  fact,  if 
the  history  of  education  is  limited  to  a  record  of  only 
typical  instances  of  the  moral,  aesthetic,  and  intellectual 
development  of  man  in  all  lands  and  at  all  periods  of 
civilization,  and  his  efforts  to  evolve  ever  higher  and 
more  expanding  ideals,  the  student  of  this  subject  will 
find  his  vision  considerably  enlarged  without  reverting 
to  the  day  of  the  clod,  the  plant,  the  amoeba,  or  our 
simian  ancestry.  No  teacher  can  make  a  survey  of 
even  a  limited  portion  of  the  development  of  the  educa¬ 
tional  process,  which  is  all  that  this  book  attempts,  and 
not  find  his  professional  view  greatly  widened,  or  fail  to 
appreciate  more  fully  the  part  which  his  calling  has 
played  in  the  progress  of  civilization. 

How  to  Study  It.  —  But  before  beginning  to  study 


THE  STUDY  OF  THE  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  3 


the  educational  procedure  of  even  the  earliest  man,  it 
may  be  worth  while  to  seek  the  best  avenue  of  approach 
to  so  important  a  subject.  The  facts  connected  with 
the  educational  history  of  any  nation  or  period  are  found 
to  be  so  diverse  and  numerous  that  one  is  liable  to  be 
lost  in  the  maze  unless  he  holds  some  silken  clew  to 
guide  him.  If  we  are  to  regard  education  as  the  grad¬ 
ual  realization  of  a  world  purpose,  and  to  consider  the 
history  of  education  as  a  history  of  progress  in  which 
each  nation,  period,  or  theorist  described  represents 
some  stage  in  the  process  or  embodies  some  suggestion 
of  advance  or  retrogression,  the  most  natural  method  of 
procedure  is  to  study  each  topic  from  the  standpoint  of 
progress. 

How,  then,  is  progress  effected?  To  understand 
this,  it  will  be  well  to  see  in  outline  how  those  social 
and  educational  ideals  that  determine  progress  are 
developed.  Among  every  people  a  number  of  tradi¬ 
tional  forms  of  self-expression  grow  up  and  gradually 
come  to  be  accepted  without  question.  Such,  for  ex¬ 
ample,  are  their  religion  and  philosophy,  their  govern¬ 
ment  and  political  institutions,  their  literature,  art,  and 
science,  and  all  the  other  features  of  their  social  and 
economic  life.  Many  influences  may  be  instrumental 
in  shaping  these  traditions,  and,  so  far  as  they  have 
affected  them,  are  worthy  of  some  study  in  determining 
the  traditions  themselves.  For  example,  the  race,  his- 


To  under¬ 
stand  the 
history  of 
education, 


one  must 
see  how 
progress  is 
effected. 


4 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


tory,  geography,  climate,  and  the  surrounding  peoples 
usually  play  the  greatest  part  in  the  evolution  of  the 
traditions  of  a  nation  or  period,  and  must  be  given  due 
consideration.  From  these  racial  traditions  those  which 
seem  to  be  most  valuable  are  more  or  less  consciously 
selected  as  social  and  educational  ideals  for  the  rising 
generation,  who  are  guided  in  such  a  way  as  to  re-live 
the  experience.  Thus  they  may  be  rapidly  brought  to 
the  level  of  the  race  without  being  obliged  to  pass 
through  all  the  laborious  stages  of  experimentation  by 
which  the  race  has  achieved  its  standing. 

The  more  the  traditions  and  ideals  that  have  thus 
evolved  are  conformed  with,  the  more  firmly  they  be¬ 
come  fixed  as  social  habits  and  the  more  .does  progress 
in  these  directions  cease.  Now,  in  general,  these  tra¬ 
ditional  ideals  last  until,  through  war,  commerce,  or 
social  contact  within  the  group,  there  arises  a  conflict 
with  other  traditions  formed  under  different  conditions, 
when  mutual  destruction  is  likely  to  occur.  Then  the 
individual,  who  is  always  the  progressive  factor  in  social 
evolution  as  opposed  to  the  conservative  force  of  the 
group  as  a  whole,  is  enabled  to  select  a  new  form  of 
expression  from  the  best  elements  of  the  conflicting 
traditions.  Social  habit  again  fixes  the  new  form  of 
expression,  and  the  individual  is  emancipated  only 
through  another  mutually  destructive  conflict.  Thus, 
broadly  speaking,  each  period  in  the  development  of 


THE  STUDY  OF  THE  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  5 


civilization  is  marked  by  higher  forms  of  expression 
than  the  preceding,  and  society  becomes  better  organ¬ 
ized  and  its  members  more  individualized  as  time  goes 
on.  Also,  as  individuals  do  become  more  differentiated 
in  society,  there  is  a  greater  conflict  of  habits  within 
the  group,  and  more  rapid  progress  is  possible. 

These  social  traditions,  which  also  become  educational 
ideals  for  a  nation  or  period,  would,  therefore,  indicate 
the  stage  of  development  in  world  progress  at  which  a 
people  have  arrived,  and  the  task,  in  estimating  an 
epoch,  is  to  discover  what  are  its  habitual  forms  of 
expression.  Hence  the  thread  for  which  we  have  been 
looking,  that  will  lead  one  through  the  labyrinth  of 
facts  in  the  educational  history  of  a  period  or  people 
and  enable  us  to  classify  them  best,  seems  to  lie  along 
the  way  of  inquiring  the  purpose  of  the  education  under 
consideration,  for  purpose  unifies  the  manifold  acts  of  a 
people  by  giving  meaning  to  them. 

The  first  step,  then,  in  studying  the  history  of  the 
education  of  any  people  should  be  to  trace  their  edu¬ 
cational  aims,  and  when  these  can  be  established,  even 
if  only  tentatively,  the  next  move  will  naturally  be  in 
the  direction  of  finding  out  what  attempt  was  made  to 
realize  them.  This  study  of  the  means  of  accomplish¬ 
ing  an  educational  purpose  may  include  an  investiga¬ 
tion  of  at  least  three  main  topics,  which  are  closely 
connected.  In  the  first  place,  one  should  find  out 


And  to 
estimate  the 
development 
of  a  period, 
one  must 
first  know  its 
educational 
aim. ; 


6 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


then  its 
content , 


method , 


and  organi¬ 
zation  ; 


through  what  accomplishments  or  knowledge  the  edu¬ 
cation  under  consideration  attempts  to  reproduce  in  the 
younger  generation  the  best  of  the  racial  experiences. 
This  educational  content  may  consist  of  a  few  simple 
forms  of  expression,  or,  if  an  educational  system  has 
been  fully  developed,  of  the  actual  course  of  study. 
Then  some  attention  should  be  given  to  the  method 
by  which  the  instruction  was  imparted,  although  in 
some  instances  this  may  be  so  informal  that  one  would 
not  at  first  perceive  that  any  definite  procedure  was 
followed.  This  may  involve  some  study  of  the  spirit, 
ideals,  and  preparation  of  the  teachers,  and  their  modes 
of  punishment  or  reward.  Finally,  it  is  of  some  im¬ 
portance  to  understand  the  organization  and  material 
equipment  by  which  the  particular  type  of  education 
was  carried  out,  although  it  may  be  that  the  experi¬ 
ence  to  be  reproduced  is  so  simple  that  the  youth 
could  learn  it  through  imitative  play  or  active  partici¬ 
pation  in  the  community.  When,  however,  the  ideal 
becomes  more  complicated  and  the  subjects  to  be  ac¬ 
quired  become  more  numerous  and  difficult,  regular 
schools  are  instituted,  and  the  study  of  organization 
may  include  a  description  not  only  of  the  school  sys¬ 
tem  with  the  management  and  the  hours  of  attend¬ 
ance,  but  also  of  the  buildings  or  places  for  holding 
the  schools  and  an  account  of  the  other  equipment. 

When  the  educational  system  is  fairly  understood,  both 


THE  STUDY  OF  THE  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  7 
in  its  purpose  and  its  procedure,  the  final  inquiry  will  and  finally 

r  _  ,  .  q.  ,  the  results. 

naturally  be  as  to  its  results.  Only  as  its  effect  upon 
civilization  and  the  people  who  employed  it  is  known, 
can  its  importance  as  a  guide  or  a  warning  at  the  present 
day  be  rightly  estimated. 

But  beyond  learning  and  interpreting  the  facts  con¬ 
nected  with  the  educational  purpose  of  a  country,  period, 
or  individual,  and  the  way  in  which  the  attempt  was 
made  to  approach  this  goal,  —  i.e.  the  matter ,  method,  and 
organization  of  the  system,  and  making  some  estimate 
of  its  results ,  the  student  of  the  history  of  education  has 
no  direct  concern.  This  classification  is  quite  obvious 
in  the  earliest  types  of  education,  but  the  more  ad¬ 
vanced  the  culture,  the  more  complicated  does  it  become. 

But  all  historical  material,  however  interesting  and  valu¬ 
able  in  other  connections,  which  does  not  in  some  way 
contribute  to  these  ends,  may  safely  be  neglected  in  this 
study,  as  it  can  throw  little  or  no  light  upon  educational 
problems  of  the  present,  past,  or  future. 


PART  I 


NON-PROGRESSIVE  EDUCATION 

CHAPTER  II 

SAVAGES  OR  NATURE  PEOPLES 

“  One  set  of  savages  is  like  another,”  said  Samuel 
Johnson,  and  this  dictum  of  the  eighteenth-century  sage 
has  stood  the  test  of  modern  investigation.  The  gov¬ 
ernment,  customs,  and  mentality  of  all  savages  have 
proved  to  be  strikingly  similar  in  their  simplicity  and 
crudity.  When  the  human  race  is  yet  in  its  intellectual 
infancy,  which  it  seems  to  be  in  the  case  of  all  primitive 
peoples  both  of  the  present  day  and  the  past,1  society  is 
found  to  be  on  a  comparatively  simple  basis,  and  there 
is  little  differentiation  of  thought  or  occupation. 

1  It  should  be  remembered  that  while  there  is  evidence  to  show  that 
most  civilized  countries  were  once  occupied  by  primitive  tribes,  savagery 
is  by  no  means  limited  to  antiquity.  There  are  many  instances  of  arrested 
social  development  at  the  present  day,  such  as  the  savages  of  North  and 
West  Australia,  South  and  West  Africa,  Malaysia,  Tasmania,  Sumatra,  and 
the  Brazilian  forests,  and  it  is  from  these  living  examples  rather  than  from 
the  stone  implements  and  ceremonial  objects  of  the  past  that  we  gain  our 
best  knowledge  of  savagery. 


8 


SAVAGES  OR  NATURE  PEOPLES 


9 


Nature  of  Primitive  Society.  —  In  all  primitive  society 
there  is  recognition  of  no  social  tie  save  that  of  blood, 
and  the  family,  clan,  and  tribe  are  the  highest  form  of 
organization  of  which  such  peoples  are  capable.  Their 
affections  are,  therefore,  limited  to  the  members  of 
their  clan,  although  they  usually  include  in  this  body 
friendly  spirits,  especially  the  ghosts  of  their  ancestors, 
the  ‘  totem  ’  animals  or  wild  beasts  from  which  they 
believe  they  have  sprung,  and  certain  other  animals 
which  they  have  tamed  or  domesticated. 

This  belief  of  the  savage  in  the  existence  of  spirits 
and  his  inclusion  of  lower  animals  in  his  clan,  grow  out 
of  that  view  of  the  world  which  is  known  as  animism , 
and  which  is  peculiar  to  all  savages  at  their  earliest 
stage.  The  savage  at  first  attributes  a  personality  to 
every  object,  and  explains  all  phenomena  of  nature  as 
if  they  were  demonstrations  of  some  personal  will. 
Such  an  idea  cannot,  with  peoples  so  crude,  be  the  re¬ 
sult  of  metaphysical  speculation,  as  has  been  the  case 
with  some  similar  conceptions 1  of  antiquity  and  modern 
times.  It  is  due  to  a  simple  confusion  between  animate 
and  inanimate  objects.  Through  such  phenomena  as 
dreams,  unconsciousness  from  a  blow  or  other  cause, 
reflections  in  the  water,  shadows,  swoons,  trances,  or 
fancied  ghost-seeing,  savages  come  to  conceive  of  the 

1  Compare  ‘  hylozoism*  among  the  Greeks,  and  the  present-day  ‘pan¬ 
psychism  ’  of  Royce. 


The  blood 
tie. 


Animistic 

religion 


and  the 
concept  of 
the  *  double.' 


10 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Totemism. 


possibility  of  a  separation  of  the  individual  from  his 
body,  and  gradually  get  to  believe  that  every  person 
has  another  existence  outside  his  visible  corporeal  one. 
This  existence  can  hardly  be  thought  of  as  a  soul,  in 
our  sense  of  the  word,  for  it  is  not  really  conceived 
as  immaterial.  It  is  only  a  kind  of  more  attenuated 
« double,’  or  copy  of  the  body,  which  exists  inside  it. 
The  conception  is  then  carried  over  to  the  lower  ani¬ 
mals  and  inanimate  objects.  Cattle,  horses,  trees, 
stones,  and  weapons  are  all  regarded  as  possessing  a 
double  of  this  sort.  Hence  the  savage’s  possessions, 
such  as  his  weapons,  utensils,  dog,  horse,  or  even  wife, 
are  often  burned  or  buried  with  him  when  he  has  left 
this  life,  that,  through  their  doubles,  they  may  continue 
to  serve  or  comfort  him  in  the  life  to  come. 

A  further  development  of  animism  appears  in  that 
worship  of  animals  which  characterizes  the  higher 
stages  of  savagery,  and  is  known  as  totemism.  This 
probably  arises,  on  the  one  hand,  from  the  close  asso¬ 
ciation  of  savages  with  wild  animals,  and,  on  the  other, 
from  the  savage’s  conception  of  animals  as  personal 
beings  superior,  in  some  respects,  to  himself.  This 
leads  to  a  superstitious  reverence  for  these  animals,  to 
the  savage’s  naming  himself  after  them,  and  finally, 
through  a  confusion  of  the  name  with  the  animal  itself, 

to  the  idea  that  the  persons  bearing  the  name  of  the 

> 

totem  animal  are  descended  from  it.  Hence  the  totem 


SAVAGES  OR  NATURE  PEOPLES 


1 1 


animal,  as  well  as  all  who  bear  his  name,  is  included  in 
the  membership  of  the  clan. 

A  still  further  outgrowth  in  savage  society,  although 
it  may  be  considered  more  characteristic  of  the  stage  of 
human  development  known  as  ‘  barbarism,’  is  the  form 
of  religion  called  ancestor  worship}  It  has  already  been 
seen  how  the  totem  animal  worshiped  by  the  members 
of  a  clan  is  considered  their  ancestor.  Hence,  later  on 
in  their  development  when  descent  comes  to  be  reck¬ 
oned  through  fathers,1 2  nothing  is  more  natural  than  that 
human  ancestors  should  come  to  be  worshiped  instead 
of  the  mythical  animal  ancestor.  Thus  the  ghosts  of 
ancestors  are  also  included  in  the  clan. 

This  animism,  totemism,  ancestor  worship,  and  other 
na'fve  explanations  illustrate  how  little  ability  the  primi¬ 
tive  mind  has  to  analyze  experience,  make  abstractions 
and  generalizations,  or  formulate  laws.  So  it  is  that 
while  the  savage  does,  to  a  certain  extent,  know  how  to 
use  things,  he  can  understand  forces  but  little  or  not 
at  all.  Not  being  able  to  comprehend  such  a  force 
as  fire,  his  weapons,  utensils,  and  tools  are  made  of 
stone,  wood,  clay,  bone,  horn,  ivory,  or  shell,  since 


Ancestor 

worship. 


Inability  to 
understand 
forces 


1  For  a  detailed  account  of  the  various  types  of  primitive  religion,  see 
Spencer,  Sociology ,  Vol.  I,  Pt.  I,  Chaps.  VIII-XXII. 

2  In  the  earliest  society,  it  is  held  by  anthropologists,  descent  is  recorded 
only  through  the  female  parent,  largely  because  the  father  is  often  un¬ 
known.  See  Deniker,  The  Races  of  Man,  p.  233. 


12 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


or  control 
nature. 


these  can  be  shaped  without  its  use,  as  metals  cannot 
be.1 

Since  the  implements  that  the  true  savage  is  able 
to  manufacture  are  so  crude,  and  because  he  cannot, 
through  a  want  of  abstract  thought  in  other  directions, 
understand  or  anticipate  the  future,  he  does  not  practice 
agriculture  to  any  extent,  and  is  largely  confined  for  his 
subsistence  to  hunting  and  fishing  and  gathering  the 
natural  products  that  are  at  hand.  In  fact,  the  chief 
characteristic  of  savages  is  their  inability  to  control 
nature,  and  they  are,  therefore,  because  of  this  bondage, 
often  spoken  of  as  ‘  nature  peoples/ 

They  are  on  this  account  inclined  to  be  nomadic,  for 
after  they  have  exhausted  the  fruits  of  the  earth  and 
the  game  in  one  place,  they  are  obliged  to  seek  them  in 
another.  In  consequence,  they  dwell  in  caves,  tents  of 
skin,  or  rude  huts,  and  their  arts  are  limited  to  making 
clothes  of  wool  and  skins,  roughly  shaped  utensils  for 
domestic  use,  and  implements  for  hunting  and  fishing 
and  sometimes  for  war. 

Purpose  of  Primitive  Education.  —  Because  the  life 

and  thought  of  savages  are  so  crude  and  undeveloped, 

% 

histories  generally  give  little  or  no  account  of  the 


l  Food  must  at  first  have  been  eaten  raw,  and  while  there  is  evidence 
for  believing  that  man  early  learned  to  use  fire  for  cooking,  it  seems  that 
he  was  much  later  in  smelting  metals  for  tools  and  weapons.  See  Starr, 
First  Steps  in  Human  Progress ,  Chaps.  I— III. 


SAVAGES  OR  NATURE  PEOPLES 


13 


educational  process  among  the  most  primitive  peoples. 
Nevertheless,  the  very  simplicity  and  uniformity  of  the 
organization,  method,  and  content  of  savage  education, 
by  constituting  an  instructive  contrast  to  later  complexi¬ 
ties,  and  affording  a  means  of  interpreting  them,  form 
a  natural  starting-point  for  studying  the  history  of 
education,  and  would  seem  to  be  worthy  of  some 
consideration.1 

Although  primitive  education  is  almost  unconscious  of 
its  own  aim,  and  cannot  be  said  to  possess  any  genuine 
ideals,  political,  social,  or  moral,  it  must  tend  to  afford  a 
training  in  two  different  directions.  The  aim  of  a  primi¬ 
tive  people  is  the  satisfaction  of  immediate  wants,  and 
the  young  savage  must  be  taught  the  occupations  of 
his  race,  in  order  that  he  may  provide  himself  with  the 
necessaries  of  life,  —  food,  clothing,  and  shelter.  This 
constitutes  his  practical  education.  On  the  other  hand, 

his  religion  is  likewise  viewed  as  a  means  to  a  satisfac- 

« 

tion  of  these  physical  needs.  If  the  mystic  powers  are 
appeased,  they  will  serve  rather  than  thwart  his  purpose. 
He  must,  therefore,  also  receive  a  theoretical  training 
in  learning  how  to  deal  with  the  unseen.  He  is  shown 
by  the  medicine-man,  exorcist,  priest,  or  whatever  the 

1  Dewey,  in  his  Interpretation  of  Savage  Mind  ( Psychological  Review , 
Vol.  IX,  p.  217  ff.),  makes  it  clear  that  the  present  tendency  to  interpret 
primitive  mentality  with  civilized  mind  as  a  standard,  and  so  in  negative 
terms,  has  prevented  us  from  grasping  the  genetic  significance  in  the 
process  of  mental  development. 


Aims  to 

satisfy 

immediate 

wants 

(practical 

education), 


14 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


and  deal 
with  the  un¬ 
seen  (theo¬ 
retical  ed¬ 
ucation). 


The  family  is 
the  means  of 
practical 
education, 


interpreter  of  the  invisible  may  be  called,  how  to  explain 
or  interpret  nature,  how  to  propitiate  the  ‘spirits’  or 
powers,  which,  it  has  been  seen,  are  believed  to  reside 
in  every  person,  animal,  and  object,  and  how  to  conduct 
the  worship  of  the  totem  animals  or  the  human  ances¬ 
tors.  It  may  be  noted  in  passing  that  these  explana¬ 
tions  and  ceremonials  of  the  medicine-man,  crude  as 
they  are,  were  the  first  expressions  of  that  tendency 
from  which  all  forms  of  human  philosophy,  religion, 
and  science  have  developed.1  Furthermore,  the  growth 
of  such  training  has  made  possible  all  our  progress  in 
practical  education. 

Its  Organization  and  Content.  —  Since  the  racial  expe¬ 
rience  at  which  primitive  education  aims  is  so  simple, 
the  youth  can  acquire  it  largely  in  imitative  play  or 
by  participation  in  the  activities  of  the  community. 
Hence  no  schools  are  needed,  and  the  means  of  carrying 
out  their  education,  at  least  as  far  as  the  practical  side 
is  concerned,  is  through  the  family,  or  the  clan,  which 
is  only  a  larger  group  supposed  to  be  bound  by  the 
ties  of  kinship,  and  which  constitutes  the  social  unit 
in  savagery.  Through  these  institutions  the  young 
savage  is  taught  to  obtain  the  necessaries  of  life. 
Individuality  is  as  yet  at  a  minimum,  since  the  same 
forms  of  expression  are  carried  on  by  all.  The  only 

l  For  the  evolution  of  the  theologian,  philosopher,  and  scientist  from 
the  medicine-man,  see  Spencer,  Sociology ,  Vol.  Ill,  Pt.  VII,  Chap.  VI. 


SAVAGES  OR  NATURE  PEOPLES 


15 


division  of  labor  known  to  the  savage  is  not  a  distinc¬ 
tion  between  individuals,  but  that  between  male  and 
female,  the  stronger  sex  being  the  protector  and  pro¬ 
vider,  and  the  other  caring  for  the  shelter  and  prepar¬ 
ing  the  food  and  clothing.1  But  even  at  this  crude 
economic  stage,  there  has  been  developed  some  skill 
in  fighting,  hunting,  and  fishing,  and  in  shaping 
weapons  and  utensils  on  the  one  hand,  and  in  tanning 
skins,  weaving,  and  possibly  cooking  on  the  other, 
and  these  arts  must  be  learned  by  the  future  men  and 
women  of  the  clan. 

Outside  this  practical  training,  a  more  conscious  and 
formal  means  of  education,  largely  theoretical,  is  usually 
undertaken  by  the  clan.  This  is  conducted  through 
what  is  known  by  anthropologists  as  ‘initiatory  cere¬ 
monies’  or  ‘puberty  rites.’  The  boys  of  the  clan, 
at  the  age  of  puberty,  are  definitely  instructed  by  their 
elders,  especially  the  medicine-men,  concerning  their 
relation  to  the  spirits  and  their  totem  animals,  and 
acquainted  with  the  religious  forms  and  ceremonies  of 
their  people.  They  are  also  informed  concerning  their 
associations  with  the  other  members  of  their  group, 
such  as  subordination  to  elders,  relations  between  the 
sexes,  and  the  sacredness  of  the  clansman’s  obligations, 
especially  loyalty  in  time  of  war.  Strict  silence  is 

1  An  account  of  the  rise  of  the  sex  division  of  labor  is  undertaken  by 
Thomas  in  Sex  and  Society ,  pp.  1 23-149. 


and  the  pu¬ 
berty  rites  of 
theoretical. 


‘Trial  and 
error.’ 


16  A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

enjoined  upon  the  candidates  concerning  the  informa¬ 
tion  that  is  communicated,  and  to  impress  it  upon 
their  minds,  and  possibly  to  test  their  endurance  and 
bravery,  they  are  required  to  fast  for  several  days 
before  and  after  the  ceremonies,  and  are  usually 
mutilated  in  some  way.  A  corresponding  initiation  is 
given  to  the  girls  of  the  clan  under  the  direction  of 
the  older  women. 

Its  Method. — The  method  of  the  savage  in  acquiring 
his  practical  education  is,  to  a  great  extent,  that  of 
‘trial  and  error.’  The  learner  blindly  imitates,  with 
little  or  no  consciousness,  the  act  of  an  older  member 
of  the  family  or  clan,  in  hunting  or  weaving,  for 
example,  until  he  meets  with  some  degree  of  success, 
and  the  right  acts  are  rendered  habitual,  and  the 
wrong  ones  eliminated,  through  the  pleasure  resulting 
from  successful  action.  But  even  in  this  practical 
education  the  young  savage  must  be  taught  to  perform 
these  acts  in  the  exact  manner  which  the  experience  of 
the  tribe,  as  interpreted  by  the  exorcist  or  medicine¬ 
man,  has  prescribed  as  being  the  only  way  that  will 
not  offend  the  spirits  connected  with  the  object. 

Summary  of  Results. — Thus  the  practical  education 
is  somewhat  regulated  by  the  theoretical.  Theoret¬ 
ical  training,  however,  is  not  confined  to  explaining 
the  procedure  of  practical  education,  as  we  have  seen 
in  the  case  of  the  initiatory  rites,  but  gives  an  inter- 


SAVAGES  OR  NATURE  PEOPLES  17 

pretation  to  every  experience  and  problem  of  life. 
It  prescribes  the  exact  method  of  conducting  one’s  self 
toward  the  other  members  of  the  tribe,  and  of  worship¬ 
ing  or  of  appeasing  the  totem  animals  and  the  spirits 
on  all  sorts  of  occasions. 

While  this  theoretical  education  is  largely  in  the 
hands  of  the  medicine-men,  under  some  circumstances 
the  head  of  the  family  or  clan  seems  to  become  the 
teacher.  Neither  the  priest  nor  the  patriarch,  however, 
assigns  to  those  under  his  guidance  any  reason  for 
the  procedure  he  prescribes.  As  in  practical  education, 
the  whole  matter  is  mostly  one  of  unconscious  imitation. 

Thus  in  all  things  the  savage  lives  merely  from 
hand  to  mouth.  His  social  organization  is  undeveloped, 
he  is  absolutely  incapable  of  abstract  thought,  his  re¬ 
ligion  is  superstitious  and  crude,  his  occupations  are 
largely  limited  to  securing  the  products  of  nature  that 
are  at  hand,  and  the  education  he  receives  is  imitative 
and  fixed.  Because  he  has  not  developed  sufficiently  to 
analyze  the  conditions  about  him  and  pass  general 
judgments  upon  them,  or  to  treasure  his  results  in  a 
written  language,  literature,  and  historic  records,  he 
has  little  idea  of  the  past  or  future,  and  is  practically 
tied  to  the  present.  Therefore,  looking  upon  his  phys¬ 
ical  and  social  surroundings  as  unchanging  through 
all  time,  he  seeks  no  control  over  nature,  and  secures 
his  education,  both  practical  and  theoretical,  by  follow- 


The  savage 
is  tied  to  the 
present. 


c 


and  no  de¬ 
velopment  of 
individuality 
exists. 


1 3  A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

in g  the  example  of  the  tribal  exorcists  and  elders. 
Since  he  is  completely  bound  down  by  nature  and 
the  customs  of  the  society  in  which  he  lives,  the 
habitual  forms  of  expression  are  the  same  for  all 
savages  of  the  same  sex,  and  no  real  development  of 
individuality  exists.  The  welfare  of  the  individual  is 
never  even  considered,  except  as  a  member  of  the 
clan.  Such  a  training  must  be  conspicuously  non-pro¬ 
gressive.  Not  until  people  have  come  to  see  beyond 
the  present  and  control  their  environment  to  some  ex¬ 
tent,  do  they  reach  to  even  a  slight  degree  of  culture 
or  civilization.  They  remain  savages,  or  children  of 
nature. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Brinton,  D.  G.  Basis  of  Social  Relations. 

Brinton,  D.  G.  Races  and  Peoples. 

Chamberlain,  A.  F.  The  Child.  A  Study  of  the  Evolution  of 
Man.  Chap.  VIII. 

Davidson,  T.  A  History  of  Education.  Bk.  I,  Chap.  III. 
Deniker,  J.  The  Races  of  Man.  Chaps.  V-VII. 

Letourneau,  C.  Id evolution  de  V education  dans  les  diverses  races 
humaines.  Chaps.  II — VIII. 

Lubbock,  J.  Prehistoric  Times.  Chaps.  I  and  XII-XV. 

Monroe,  P.  Text-Book  in  the  History  of  Education.  Chap.  I. 
Morgan,  L.  H.  Ancient  Society.  Pt.  I,  Chaps.  I— II,  and  Pt.  II, 
Chaps.  I— II. 

Spencer,  H.  Principles  of  Sociology.  Vol.  I,  Pt.  I,  Chaps.  V— 
XXVI,  and  Vol.  Ill,  Pt.  VII. 


SAVAGES  OR  NATURE  PEOPLES 


19 


Starr,  F.  Some  First  Steps  in  Human  Progress.  Chaps.  I,  II, 
XII,  XIII,  XXI,  XXII,  XXIV-XXVI. 

Thomas,  W.  I.  Sex  and  Society.  Especially  pp.  55-172. 

Tylor,  E.  B.  Anthropology.  Chaps.  I,  IV-XII,  and  XIV. 
Tylor,  E.  B.  Primitive  Culture.  Chaps.  II  and  XI-XVIII. 
Tylor,  E.  B.  Researches  into  the  Early  History  of  Mankind. 
Chaps.  VII-X. 


CHAPTER  III 


Barbarism  as 
a  transitional 
stage. 


Similarity 

among 

Oriental 

nations. 


BARBARISM  OR  EARLY  CIVILIZATION 

The  Movement  from  Nature  to  Culture.  —  The  prog¬ 
ress  of  the  human  race  from  nature  to  culture  —  sav¬ 
agery  to  civilization  —  is  very  gradual,  and  the  dividing 
line  is  difficult  to  draw.  To  make  the  process  clearer, 
and  also  for  the  convenience  of  classifying  a  number 
of  peoples  who  have  evidently  passed  beyond  most  of 
the  characteristics  of  savagery  and  yet  can  hardly  be 
called  civilized,  many  ethnologists 1  and  historians  rec¬ 
ognize  the  stage  known  as  ‘  barbarism. ’ 

Whether  we  use  the  term  ‘barbarism’  or  not,  it  is 
easily  seen  that  there  are  many  and  varied  nations 
which  fall  under  the  head  of  this  transitional  stage. 
While,  however,  they  represent  several  races  and  a 
large  number  of  influences,  the  most  typical  have  all 
been  located  in  the  Orient,  and  their  social  character¬ 
istics  are  sufficiently  alike  to  justify  treating  them  in 
a  single  group.  Their  similarity  in  educational  pro¬ 
cedure  has  appeared  so  great  to  some  writers,  that 
they  suggest  the  omission,  in  studying,  of  all  these 

1  Compare  Tylor,  Anthropology,  p.  24;  Morgan,  Ancient  Society,  Chap. 
I;  etc. 


« 


20 


BARBARISM  OR  EARLY  CIVILIZATION 


21 


nations  save  one,  or  actually  limit  their  treatment  to 
a  single  nation  as  typical  of  all.1  It  has,  however, 
seemed  well  to  describe  here  briefly,  in  their  historical 
order,  the  more  important  peoples  of  barbarism,  or 
early  civilization,  and  afterward  endeavor  to  sum  up 
their  common  characteristics.  The  diversities,  after  all, 
are  worthy  of  some  consideration,  as  each  seems  to 
emphasize  more  strongly  than  the  others  some  pecul¬ 
iarity  of  barbarism,  and  it  would  be  difficult  to  state 
what  nation  should  be  made  the  type.  If,  however, 
it  is  felt  that  these  systems  are  of  little  value  in  a 
general  history  of  education,  the  attention  can  easily 
be  confined  to  Egypt  as  historically  the  most  obvious 
type  of  transition,  and  the  final  statement  of  features 
in  common2  may  be  used  as  a  sufficient  summary  of 
the  other  nations. 

1  See  Monroe,  Text-book  in  the  History  of  Education ;  Seeley,  History 
of  Education,  p.  5;  and  the  remarks  of  A.  O.  Norton  in  School  Review , 
Vol.  XII,  p.  823. 

2  See  Chap.  X. 


CHAPTER  IV 


EGYPT 

Historical  Development.  —  Egypt  furnishes  us  with 
abundant  evidence  of  the  early  day  at  which  she 
passed  beyond  the  stage  of  savagery.  Thousands  of 
Egyptian  manuscripts,  monuments,  and  mummies,  pre¬ 
served  by  the  dry  air  and  sand,  by  solidity  of  structure, 
or  care  in  embalming,  witness  the  extent  to  which  her 
civilization  was  developed  tens  of  centuries  before  the 
earliest  epochs  in  Greece.  The  history  of  this  ancient 
country  extends  from  the  days  before  the  *  dynasties/ 
5000  b.c.,  down  to  its  decline  and  final  conquest  by 
the  Persians  in  525  b.c.,  after  which  the  identity  of  its 
civilization  was  lost.  It  passed  through  a  number  of 
periods  in  its  development,  each  of  which  is  fairly  dis¬ 
tinct  in  its  characteristics,  but  there  is  an  underlying 
unity  throughout  the  entire  history  of  ancient  Egypt. 
The  social,  political,  and  intellectual  conditions  of  each 
epoch  are  clearly  implicit  in  the  one  just  before  it,  and 
up  to  the  beginning  of  the  period  of  decadence  there  is 
a  constant  growth  in  all  the  marks  of  its  peculiar  civili¬ 
zation. 


22 


23 


EGYPT 

Effect  of  the  Nile  upon  Economic  Development.  —  The 

interest  which  the  Egyptians  showed  in  various  lines  of 
development,  and  the  extent  to  which  they  carried  them, 
were  determined  in  large  measure  by  the  peculiar  topog¬ 
raphy  of  the  country.  The  statement  of  the  old  Greek 
traveler,  Herodotus,  that  “  Egypt  was  the  gift  of  the 
river,”  is  true  in  a  wider  sense  than  he  intended  it.  It 
is  obvious  that  geologically  Egypt  is  the  product  of  the 
Nile.  Every  year,  after  the  snow  has  melted  and  the 
spring  rains  have  set  in,  the  river  reaches  its  height  and 
appears  like  a  vast  lake.  Then  it  gradually  recedes  and 
leaves  behind  a  rich  deposit  of  black  mud,  which  it  has 
gathered  from  the  mountains  in  the  south.  The  natural 
fertility  of  such  a  soil,  increased  by  the  evenness  and 
warmth  of  the  climate,  has  caused  Egypt,  from  the  days 
of  the  youthful  Joseph,  and  even  before,  to  be  known  as 
a  land  of  steady  and  plentiful  crops. 

The  Nile  was  largely  instrumental  also  in  determin¬ 
ing  the  industrial  and  intellectual  characteristics  of  the 
people.  The  Egyptians  found  it  necessary  to  regulate 
its  waters  in  order  to  secure  the  best  results.  They  had 
to  construct  irrigation  canals,  to  conduct  the  river  at  its 
flood  into  reservoirs  and  then  out  into  the  fields  wher¬ 
ever  it  was  most  needed.  Their  most  striking  feat  of 
this  sort  occurred  early  in  their  history,  when  they  re¬ 
claimed  an  arid  tract  called  Fayum,1  some  seven  hun- 

1  It  is  not  certainly  known  whether  the  original  flooding  of  the  Fayfim 
was  effected  by  natural  or  artificial  processes.  The  lake  of  historic  times 


Fertility  of 
the  soil. 


Skill  in 
engineering. 


24 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Homo¬ 
geneity  and 
isolation  of 
the  people. 


dred  square  miles,  by  constructing  a  canal  through  the 
limestone  hills.  They  also  invented  devices  to  raise  the 
water  from  the  canals  to  the  level  of  the  more  distant 
fields  as  the  Nile  gradually  receded.  Other  difficulties, 
such  as  the  arrangement  of  dikes  and  the  location  of 
landmarks,  must  have  been  overcome,  and  Egypt  was 
thus  forced  by  her  river  to  become  the  mother  of  en¬ 
gineering. 

By  affording  a  means  of  transportation  the  Nile  was 
of  great  assistance  to  trade  and  industry,  and  likewise 
enabled  the  Egyptians  to  become  more  homogeneous. 
It  furnished  a  roadway  seven  hundred  and  fifty  miles 
long,  which  connected  all  parts  of  the  country.  They 
were  able  to  float  huge  blocks  of  stone  down  from  the 
quarries  of  the  south,  thus  facilitating  greatly  the  prog¬ 
ress  of  architecture,  and  other  intercourse  between  the 
various  communities  was  active.  This  must  have  done 
much  to  moderate  the  local  differences  and  jealousies 
that  would  naturally  exist  in  a  country  so  long  and 
straggling. 

As  a  whole,  however,  Egypt  was  quite  isolated  from 
the  rest  of  the  world.  Although  she  had  easy  access  to 
the  Mediterranean,  there  were  no  harbors  on  the  Delta, 
while  the  Red  Sea,  which  led  to  the  Indian  Ocean  and 
the  East,  was  distant  three  or  four  days’  journey  through 

called  Moeris  was  pushed  back  by  retrenchment  walls,  and  its  eventual 
destruction  was  due  to  the  decay  of  the  embankment  through  neglect. 


EGYPT 


25 


the  desert,  and  the  ‘cataracts’  of  the  Nile  made  it 
difficult  to  approach  the  countries  south  of  Egypt. 
Similarly,  outside  influences  were  slow  in  affecting  the 
Egyptians,  as  whatever  foreigners  found  their  way  in 
from  Asia,  Libya,  or  Nubia,  were  so  few  at  any  time 
that  they  were  easily  assimilated.1  Their  long  seclusion 
had  its  effect  in  developing  a  unique  type  of  civilization, 
with  cultural  products  peculiar  to  themselves. 

Religion  and  Ethics.  —  The  religious  conceptions  of 
the  Egyptians,  also,  were  affected  by  their  natural  sur¬ 
roundings.  Their  earliest  deities  were  the  Sun  ( Re 2), 
who  was  universally  popular,  and  the  Nile  ( Hapi\ 
toward  which  they  usually  faced  their  temples.  A 
myth  that  became  fully  as  widespread  as  that  of  Re 
dealt  with  Osiris  (Sun),  his  sister-wife,  Isis  (Dawn), 
and  his  hostile  brother,  Set  (Darkness).  Other  cults 
connected  with  the  sun,  such  as  those  of  Horns ,  Amoit, 
and  Ateny  sprang  up,  but  nearly  every  locality  differed 
in  the  names,  attributes,  and  powers  that  it  assigned  to 
the  sun  god.  When  the  gods  of  the  various  districts 
were  gradually  identified  and  their  names  made  inter¬ 
changeable,  the  Egyptian  theogony  became  hopelessly 


Worship  of 
the  Nile  and 
the  sun. 


1  The  Egyptians,  however,  learned  to  use  to  the  utmost  their  meager 
facilities.  As  early  as  2900  B.C.  they  had  commerce  with  Syria  and  other 
countries  on  the  Mediterranean.  By  the  time  of  the  Empire  (1600- 
1100  B.c.)  they  had  communication  with  most  of  the  known  world,  and 
were  in  turn  largely  modified  in  their  customs  and  progress,  especially 
through  Semitic  influence.  2  Pronounced  Ray . 


2  6 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Rise  of 
henotheism. 


Belief  in 
future  life. 


Prudential 
ethics  and 
the  outside 
sanction. 


involved.  From  this  condition  it  was  apparently  extri¬ 
cated  by  the  development  of  a  henotheism,  with  Re,  or 
some  other  god,  as  the  head  of  the  hierarchy.  Although 
the  Egyptians  never  became  acute  in  their  meditation 
and  reasoning,  the  more  enlightened  may  thus  have 
come  to  conceive  of  God  as  one,  though  worshiped 
under  many  aspects,  and  to  interpret  the  various  myths 
in  a  metaphorical  sense.  The  religion  of  the  common 
people,  however,  was  much  lower.  They  regarded  cer¬ 
tain  animals  not  merely  as  symbols  of  the  gods,  but  as 
actual  deities,  and  eventually  worshiped  them. 

Yet  belief  in  a  future  existence  was  universal.  A 
small  statue  of  the  deceased  was  set  up  in  the  tomb  as 
an  habitation  for  his  ka,  or  double,  and  the  body  was 
mummified,  that  the  ka  might  one  day  return  and 
revivify  it.  While  this  life  after  death  was,  in  the  old¬ 
est  period,  viewed  as  uneventful  and  sad,  before  long 
its  nature  was  supposed  to  depend  upon  the  judg¬ 
ment  passed  upon  one  at  his  trial  before  Osiris  in  the 
Lower  World.  If  it  were  favorable,  he  might  be  al¬ 
lowed  to  dwell  in  the  pleasant  fields  of  Aarii ,  or  share 
in  the  life  of  the  sun  god. 

On  the  whole,  however,  the  religion  of  the  Egyptians 
was  viewed  as  a  means  of  propitiation,  that  their  prac¬ 
tical  needs  might  not  be  interfered  with,  and  it  had 
little  effect  upon  conduct.  If  we  may  judge  from  the 
Confessions  before  Osiris ,  the  Book  of  the  Dead ,  the 


EGYPT 


2  7 


Aphorisms  of  Ptah-hotep ,  and  other  moral  works  that 
have  been  found,  their  ethical  doctrines  were  prudential 
and  sordid.  Personal  conduct  was  prescribed  largely 
as  a  key  to  success ;  friendship  was  considered  useful, 
but  not  a  matter  for  devotion ;  the  grosser  crimes  and 
vices  were  forbidden,  but  self-sacrifice  and  purity  were 
not  enjoined ;  and  dealings  with  the  gods  were  described 
as  compacts.  “Sacrifice,”  says  a  maxim  of  Ani,  “for 
God  looks  on  the  offerer,  but  he  neglects  those  who 
neglect  him.”  Moreover,  as  in  the  case  of  all  moral 
systems  that  are  imposed  by  some  outside  sanction 
rather  than  developed  from  within,  the  ethics  of  the 
Egyptians  became  a  veneer  under  which  lay  much  vain¬ 
glory,  hypocrisy,  and  immorality. 

Classes  of  Society  and  Position  of  Women.  — As  would 
be  expected  in  so  religious  a  country,  the  priesthood 
finally  became  the  controlling  element  in  Egypt.  It 
possessed  most  of  the  wealth  and  learning,  and  held 
many  of  the  political  offices.  Before  the  differentiation 
of  the  professional  priest,  the  sacerdotal  class  performed 
the  functions  of  not  only  priests  and  prophets,  but  of 
many  professional  people,  such  as  lawyers,  doctors, 
embalmers,1  architects,  and  scribes.  By  the  time  of 
the  Empire  (1600-1100  b.c.),  however,  the  military 
class,  which  was  made  up  of  all  types  of  soldiery,  in¬ 
cluding  the  complement  for  the  navy,  became  nearly 

1  An  important  profession  in  Egypt,  ranking  as  a  sort  of  medical  specialty. 


ft 


Privileges  of 
the  sacer¬ 
dotal  and 
military 
classes. 


2  8 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Kindly  treat¬ 
ment,  but 
subordina¬ 
tion  of 
women. 


equal  to  the  sacerdotal  in  privilege.  Both  classes  were 
exempt  from  taxation,  and  from  their  number  came  the 
king.  The  rest  of  the  people,  who  composed  the  in¬ 
dustrial  class,  were  obliged  to  support  these  higher 
classes,  construct  the  public  works,  and  carry  all  the 
other  burdens  of  state.  Yet  they  had  definite  rights 
guaranteed  them  by  law. 

While  the  classes  were  well  separated  early  in  the 
history  of  Egypt,  their  number  and  relative  importance 
varied  from  time  to  time.  Distinctions  grew  up  espe¬ 
cially  within  the  industrial  class.  At  no  time,  however, 
was  the  division  between  classes  absolutely  fixed,  and 
no  real  caste  system  prevailed.  While  a  son  generally 
followed  the  occupation  of  his  father,  he  might  through 
education  rise  into  a  higher  class. 

Also  in  the  social  position  allowed  to  women,  Egypt 
was  more  advanced  than  most  Oriental  countries.  As 
a  rule,  a  man  had  but  one  wife,  who  was  recognized  as 
‘  mistress  of  the  household,’  and,  if  we  may  judge  from 
statuary,  was  treated  with  great  affection.  Ptah-hotep 
gravely  advises :  “  If  thou  art  successful  and  lovest  the 
wife  of  thy  bosom,  fill  her  stomach  and  clothe  her  back. 
Make  glad  her  heart  during  the  time  thou  hast.”  The 
kings  and  some  wealthy  men  had  concubines,  but  even 
then  the  women  were  not  veiled  or  immured.  Women 
were  allowed  some  education,  although  it  never  extended 
beyond  the  rudiments. 


EGYPT 


29 


Cultural  Development. — The  advance  for  which 
Egypt  has  been  most  famed  was  in  architecture.  This 
also  was  closely  connected  with  religion,  and  seems  to 
have  consisted  mostly  of  temples  and  tombs,  as  there 
are  few  evidences  of  domestic  or  palatial  buildings  to  be 
found.  The  temples  were  at  first  rude  structures  of 
wood  or  wicker,  but  before  long  were  built  of  stone,  and 
continued  to  increase  in  number  and  magnificence. 
The  climax  was  reached  in  the  later  Empire  through  the 
completion  by  Ramses  II  of  the  temple  of  Amon,  or 
‘  Hall  of  Columns,’  at  Karnak,  “  the  greatest  of  man’s 
architectural  works,”  the  elaborate  temple  at  Luxor,1 
the  temple  cut  from  the  living  rock  at  Abu  Simbel,  and 
the  Ramesseum,  or  mortuary  temple  of  the  monarch  on 
the  plain  of  Thebes. 

The  Egyptian  temples  were  grand  in  conception  and 
massive  in  proportions.2  The  great  structure  at  Karnak 
is  judged  to  have  been  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long,  with  a 
main  entrance  of  379  feet,  which  would  make  it  more 
than  twice  the  size  of  St.  Peter’s  at  Rome.  But  the  de¬ 
velopment  of  architecture  in  these  enormous  buildings 
was  limited,  for  they  were  all  of  practically  the  same 
conventional  type.  They  were  intended  not  merely  as 

1  Karnak  was  begun  in  the  Middle  Kingdom,  and  Luxor  probably  so. 

2  Karnak  depends  upon  mass  for  its  effect,  but  Amen-hotep  Ill’s  col¬ 
onnades  at  Luxor  depend  upon  form.  Contrary  to  the  general  impression, 
Luxor  exhibits  much  greater  architecture  than  Karnak.  The  ‘climax’ 
was  reached  in  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty. 


Advance  in 
architecture. 


Conven¬ 
tionality  of 
temples, 


30 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


tombs, 


and 

pyramids. 


sanctuaries,  but  as  monuments  to  the  sovereigns  who 
built  them.  In  front  of  the  entrance  gateway  stood 
twin  colossal  statues  of  the  monarch,  together  with  a 
pair  of  obelisks  bearing  in  hieroglyphics  a  glorification 
of  his  victories  and  achievements.  The  gateways  were 
always  flanked  with  towers,  and,  as  luxury  grew,  the 
entrances  were  increased  to  two  or  three,  which  were 
often  separated  by  avenues  of  sphinxes. 

Owing  to  the  solemn  prominence  connected  by  the 
Egyptians  with  the  thought  of  death,  the  tomb  domi¬ 
nated  even  the  temple.  Diodorus  said,  “  The  Egyptians 
call  their  houses  hostelries,  on  account  of  the  short  time 
during  which  they  inhabit  them,  but  the  tombs  they  call 
eternal  dwelling-places.”  In  the  earliest  days  the  tomb 
was  only  an  oblong  pile  of  stones  to  protect  the  body 
which  had  been  placed  below  in  a  chamber  hollowed  out 
of  the  rock.  But  the  tomb  was  also  used  as  a  place 
where  the  friends  of  the  deceased  could  make  offerings 
to  his  ka  and  recite  a  ritual.  So,  while  remaining  of 
the  same  type  architecturally,  it  soon  became  a  vast 
structure  of  stone,  sometimes  having  as  many  as  thirty 
chambers.  It  contained  a  species  of  conventional 
chapel,  which  was  adorned  with  scenes  from  the  life 
of  the  deceased. 

The  pyramids,  of  which  remains  of  seventy  or  more 
still  exist,  are  the  most  impressive  of  all  Egyptian  struc¬ 
tures.  They  should,  however,  be  considered  achieve- 


EGYPT 


31 


ments  of  engineering  rather  than  of  architecture.  One  1 
of  them  is  755  feet  square  at  the  base,  and  rises  to  a 
height  of  481  feet.  It  is  faced  on  all  four  sides  with 
limestone  blocks  so  beautifully  joined  as  to  appear  like 
a  single  surface.  The  pyramids  were  erected  as  tombs 
for  the  royal  mummies,  and,  except  for  differences  in 
size  and  material,  are  all  alike. 

The  temples  and  tombs  of  the  Egyptians  were  adorned 
with  paintings,  reliefs,  and  statuary.  As  their  painting 
was  done  in  outline  only,  it  was  the  same  in  principle  as 
the  relief  in  their  sculpture,  except  that  it  was  more 
rapid,  cheaper,  and  less  durable.  A  king’s  tomb,  which 
was  always  supposed  to  be  carved  in  relief,  if  left 
unfinished,  often  had  the  design  completed  in  painting 
by  his  successor. 

Besides  this  lack  of  development,  the  outline,  whether 
painted  or  in  relief,  was  thoroughly  formulaic.  All 
figures  had  as  far  as  possible  to  make  every  part  of  the 
body  appear  in  profile,  and  they  were  all  supposed  to 
face  toward  the  right,  with  the  further  foot  and  arm  in 
advance.  This  always  gives  a  stiffness  and  unnatural¬ 
ness  to  Egyptian  figures  ;  and  where  the  artist  was 
obliged  to  face  his  figure  toward  the  left  and  simply 
reversed  the  design,  the  effect  is  sometimes  ludicrous. 

1  The  three  ‘great  pyramids’  are  those  of  Khtifu  (Cheops)  and  his 
immediate  successors  in  the  Fourth  Dynasty,  and  are  located  at  Gizeh, 
almost  north  of  Memphis. 


Formalism  of 
painting  and 
sculpture. 


32 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Develop¬ 
ment  of 
crafts. 


Practically  every  picture,  too,  had  its  typical  method  of 
representation,  which  the  artist  was  required  to  follow. 
During  the  Empire  a  realistic  school  of  artists  flourished 
to  some  extent,  but  was  eventually  crushed  out. 

Egyptian  statuary  also  was  bound  by  social  custom. 
The  two  classes  of  works  that  have  been  found, — 
portrait  statues  for  the  inner  chambers  of  the  tombs, 
and  decorative  statues  of  gods,  kings,  and  sacred  animals 
for  the  temples,  have  but  two  types  of  representation. 
Although  their  portraiture  reveals  the  first  emergence  of 
individuality,  until  the  time  of  the  Empire  the  treatment 
of  details,  with  the  exception  of  the  face,  is  generally  as 
stereotyped  as  that  of  the  position. 

In  other  technical  lines  the  Egyptians  showed  much 
practical  skill,  if  we  may  judge  from  pictures  and 
descriptions  that  have  come-  down  to  us  and  objects 
that  have  been  found.  At  an  early  day  they  learned  to 
make  bricks  and  mortar  from  the  mud  of  the  Nile. 
They  worked  granite  and  other  stone  of  the  greatest 
resistance,  made  the  sharpest  details,  and  gave  a  finish¬ 
ing  polish.  The  smelting  of  metals  was  understood  by 
them.  They  manufactured  glass  as  early  as  the  First 
Dynasty ;  and  their  skill  in  glazing  beads,  amulets, 
bowls,  and  vases,  so  as  to  resemble  the  most  costly 
gems,  and  in  preparing  enamels  for  the  work  of  the 
goldsmith,  has  commanded  the  admiration  of  modern 
experts.  They  invented  a  potter’s  wheel  and  baked  the 


EGYPT 


33 


clay  in  a  stove,  but  their  product,  though  durable,  was 
not  of  a  high  order.  The  papyrus  was  manufactured  by 
them  into  paper,  mats,  ropes,  sandals,  and  boats,  and 
they  were  dexterous  in  weaving  and  coloring  baskets, 
mats,  and  clothing.  Their  fine  white  linen  was  famous. 

In  the  sciences,  too,  the  Egyptians  made  considerable 
progress.  Skill  in  engineering  was  forced  upon  them  by 
irrigation  problems,  and  the  erection  of  the  pyramids,  the 
obelisks,  and  the  supporting  columns  of  the  temples. 
This  knowledge  was  purely  practical  and  was  discovered 
empirically.  The  mathematics  underlying  it  was  not 
a  genuine  science.  Their  methods  in  arithmetic  were 
cumbrous,  and  small  account  was  taken  of  fractions.  In 
geometry,  so  necessary  for  surface  measurement,  there 
was  little  theory,  although  their  procedure  was  accurate 
enough  for  practical  results.  Astronomy  must  have 
been  developed  early  as  a  means  of  calculating  the 
Nile  s  annual  overflow  and  marking  religious  festivals. 
However,  while  they  devised  the  calendar  of  365  days 
more  than  four  thousand  years  before  Christ,  they  con¬ 
tinued  to  believe  in  ‘lucky  ’  and  ‘unlucky’  days,  accord¬ 
ing  as  they  were  connected  with  various  mythological 
events.  Their  knowledge  of  medicine,  which  on  the 
empirical  side  was  not  inconsiderable,  was  likewise  con¬ 
fused  with  incantation,  superstition,  and  disgusting  com¬ 
pounds.1  The  Egyptians  also  held  music,  both  sacred 

1  Putrid  meat,  lizard’s  blood,  swine’s  teeth,  and  dung  were  often  ingredients. 

D 


Empiricism 
of  the 
sciences. 


34 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Literature 
was  stereo¬ 
typed  and 
stilted. 


Education 
was  priestly, 
practical,  and 
professional. 


and  secular,  in  high  esteem,  but  the  rules  for  its  com¬ 
position  were  prescribed  and  rigid. 

The  literature  of  the  Egyptians  was  extensive.  Be¬ 
sides  the  works  on  religion,  morals,  and  practical  pur¬ 
suits,  they  wrote  fairy  tales,  travelers’  stories,  novels, 
school  books,  letters,  lyrics,  and  hymns  to  the  gods  and 
kings.  While  these  works  were  the  first  in  the  history  of 
literature  to  disclose  the  development  of  the  individual, 
from  a  modern  point  of  view  they  seem  stereotyped, 
lacking  in  wit  and  description,  and  forced  and  stilted  in 
style.  The  fiction  is  uninteresting  and  licentious.  The 
hymns,  except,  perhaps,  that  of  Amen-hotep  IV,  are 
lacking  in  devotional  spirit,  and  consist  largely  of  hyper¬ 
boles  and  conventional  phrases  without  much  meaning. 
The  school  books  are  in  the  form  of  an  ‘instruction’ 
from  some  wise  ruler  or  teacher  to  his  son  or  pupil.  One 
of  the  most  interesting  is  that  found  in  the  Sallier  papy¬ 
rus,  in  which  the  wise  Dauuf  thus  describes  to  his  son 
the  advantages  of  the  literary  life  :  “  Give  thy  heart  to 
learning  and  love  her  like  a  mother,  for  there  is  nothing 
that  is  so  precious  as  learning,”  and  so  on.  As  a  rule, 
these  instructions  struggle  after  a  fixed  style  and  harp 
tediously  on  the  same  ideas. 

Education.  Its  Purpose.  —  The  education  of  the  Egyp¬ 
tians  has  been  variously  spoken  of  as  ‘priestly,’  ‘prac¬ 
tical,’  or  ‘professional.’  From  the  foregoing  account 
of  their  history,  life,  and  customs  can  be  seen  the  signifi- 


EGYPT 


35 


cance  of  each  of  these  terms  as  descriptive  of  the  forms 
of  expression  at  which  their  education  aimed.  Inasmuch 
as  the  sacerdotal  class  possessed  the  learning,  did  the 
imparting,  and  dominated  the  state,  the  education  of  the 
times  may  well  be  called  priestly.  Again,  education, 
which  was  always  highly  esteemed,  was  considered  im¬ 
portant  entirely  because  of  its  practical  value.  It  was 
intended  simply  to  equip  one  with  some  professional 
skill  that  was  in  demand,  such  as  that  of  the  engineer, 
architect,  physician,  scribe,  soldier,  musician,  or  artisan, 
and  thus  help  him  to  lead  as  happy  a  life  as  possible  in 
this  world,  and  secure  the  good-will  of  the  gods  in  the 
life  to  come.  It  was  also  indispensable  to  office,  and 
might  enable  one  to  attain  a  higher  position  in  life  than 
that  of  his  father.  “  The  ignorant  man,  whose  name  is 
unknown,”  according  to  one  papyrus,  “  is  like  a  heavily 
laden  donkey ;  he  is  driven  by  the  scribe.”  And  another 
advises,  “  Set  to  work  and  become  a  scribe,  for  then  thou 
shalt  be  a  leader  of  men.”  The  idea  of  a  liberal  educa¬ 
tion,  however,  never  impressed  itself  upon  the  Egyp¬ 
tians.  Such  a  notion  as  the  search  after  truth  for  its 
own  sake,  without  utilitarian  motive,  or  the  idea  of  edu¬ 
cating  for  good  citizenship  or  manhood,  still  awaited  a 
time  when  people  allowed  freer  play  to  individuality. 

Its  Organization  and  Content.  —  School  life  began  as 
soon  as  the  child  passed  out  of  infancy,  at  five  years  of 
age.  School  hours  lasted  half  the  day.  The  state  did 


Elementary 
education 
was  possible 
for  all, 


36 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


while  higher 
education  at 
the  temples 
furnished 
training  for 
the  scribes, 


\ 


not  provide  an  educational  system  for  the  masses,  but 
teachers  were  always  to  be  had,  and  at  a  reasonable 
price,  so  that  any  clever  boy  might  obtain  a  training  in 
the  rudiments  of  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic. 

In  the  chief  cities  of  the  various  districts,  more  ad¬ 
vanced  instruction  leading  to  the  different  professions 
could  be  obtained  at  the  temples.  The  chief  colleges 
were  at  the  temples  of  Ptah  at  Memphis,  Re  at  Heli¬ 
opolis,  and  Anion  at  Thebes.  During  the  early  days 
boys  of  good  family  were  often  educated  at  the  court 
with  the  sons  of  the  king,  and  later  the  various  depart¬ 
ments  of  administration  came  more  and  more  to  educate 
the  candidates  for  their  respective  official  positions. 
Education  was  always  for  a  specific  profession,  and 
very  seldom  did  a  young  man  change  to  some  other  line 
than  that  for  which  he  had  been  trained. 

The  most  general  profession  was  that  of  the  scribe. 
It  was  the  first  step  on  the  ladder  of  learning,  and  the 
beginning  of  official  advancement.  While  scribes  were 
not  needed  because  of  the  illiteracy  of  the  people,  there 
was  a  wide  field  for  the  profession.  There  were  sacred 
manuscripts  and  official  documents  to  be  copied,  estates 
and  storehouses  to  be  managed  by  those  who  under¬ 
stood  accounts,  and  military,  civil,  royal,  and  priestly 
offices  that  needed  skilled  administration.  The  notarial, 
or  lower-class  scribe,  after  receiving  an  elementary 
education,  usually  secured  his  special  training  through 


EGYPT 


3  7 


apprenticeship  in  an  office,  where  he  learned  to  write 
the  proper  forms  and  legal  documents,  and  to  acquire 
the  hieratic,  or  cursive,  handwriting.  One  who  was 
ambitious  to  become  a  scribe  of  the  higher  class  went 
to  a  temple  college,  and  here,  besides  learning  the  hiero¬ 
glyphic,  the  hieratic,  and,  during  the  later  Empire,  the 
still  more  abbreviated  demotic,  writing,  he  was  trained 
in  ethics,  philosophy,  and  good  manners,  and  studied 
law  and  administration. 

In  addition  to  the  attainments  of  the  scribe  as  a  basis, 
each  of  the  other  professions  had  a  specific  training  of 
its  own  at  the  temple  colleges.  The  architects  learned, 
besides  mathematics  and  mechanics,  much  that  was  of 
a  sacred  or  historic  nature.  The  physicians  were  taught 
crude  anatomy  and  physiology,  the  use  of  remedies  and 
incantations,  and  in  some  cases  received  special  training 
on  various  organs,  such  as  the  eyes,  brain,  teeth,  and 
intestines.  The  priests  were  given  a  thorough  ground¬ 
ing  in  the  old  religious  documents,  ritual  and  cere¬ 
monies,  law,  mathematics,  astronomy,  and  astrology,  and 
all  the  other  learning  of  the  times. 

Its  Method.  —  Not  much  is  known  concerning  the 
methods  of  teaching  in  Egypt,  but  considerable  time 
must  have  been  spent  in  learning  the  hieroglyphs. 
The  Egyptians  had  reason  to  be  proud  of  these  char¬ 
acters,  which  were  of  their  own  invention,  and  were,  in 
spite  of  their  complexity,  very  easy  to  read ;  but  the 


architects, 
physicians, 
and  priests. 


Memoriter 
and  imitative 
methods  of 
teaching. 


3» 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Corporal 

punishment. 


acquisition  of  some  five  hundred  or  one  thousand  char¬ 
acters  was  no  small  task  for  the  memory.  During  the 
early  Empire,  too,  the  hieratic  also  came  into  use  and 
had  to  be  learned.  The  schoolboy  at  first  imitated  with 
a  stylus  upon  a  wooden  tablet  the  copy  that  had  been 
set  for  him.  As  soon  as  he  could  write,  he  was  pro¬ 
moted  to  transcribe  or  write  from  dictation  upon  papyrus 
passages  from  some  poem,  story,  religious  work,  school 
book  of  the  type  called  an  *  instruction,’1  or  some  other 
good  literature.  By  this  means  the  pupils  improved 
their  calligraphy  and  style.  Their  literary  training 
must  have  been  carried  on  largely  by  imitation,  as  no 
vestige  of  a  grammar  or  lexicon  has  yet  been  discovered 
in  Egypt.  Large  numbers  of  their  copy  books,  how¬ 
ever,  have  been  found  in  rubbish  heaps.  These  books 
are  easily  distinguished  by  the  master’s  corrections,  in¬ 
dicated  upon  the  upper  edge  of  the  pages.  On  the 
reverse  side  of  the  papyrus  are  often  found  bills  for 
invoices  of  corn,  business  letters,  and  other  practical 
work,  written  by  the  pupils.  Any  further  instruction 
consisted,  as  has  been  seen,  in  learning  a  profession, 
also  through  memory  and  imitation  from  the  priests  at 
one  of  the  temple  colleges  or  from  one  of  the  higher 
officials  of  a  governmental  department. 

Learning  by  such  methods  must  have  been  tedious, 
and  discipline  had  to  be  severe.  A  pedagogical  maxim 

1  See  p.  34. 


EGYPT 


39 


of  the  time  was,  “A  boy’s  ears  are  on  his  back;  he 
hears  when  he  is  beaten.”  Reprimands  were  also  used 
as  a  corrective,  and  a  youth  could  be  punished  by  con¬ 
finement  to  the  temple  for  three  months. 

Influence  of  Egyptian  Education  and  Culture  upon 
Civilization.  —  A  great  deal  has  been  said,  especially 
in  ancient  times,  about  the  *  learning  of  the  Egyptians.’ 1 
In  comparison  with  other  nations  of  their  time,  this 
fame  was  undoubtedly  deserved.  The  needs  of  the 
country  and  their  isolation  from  other  nations  forced 
a  higher  development,  and  they  contributed  greatly  to 
the  advancement  of  civilization  and  education,  but  their 
achievements  should  not  be  exaggerated. 

The  limitations  of  their  activities  can  easily  be  seen. 
Engineering  and  the  other  sciences,  while  appearing 
for  the  first  time  in  history,  were  at  the  empirical  stage, 
and  were,  in  most  cases,  somewhat  mixed  with  supersti¬ 
tion.  The  industrial  arts,  as  well  as  painting,  relief,  and 
sculpture,  had  not  received  much  development,  with  the 
exception  of  their  glazed  work  and  enameling,  and  there 
was  an  inclination  to  follow  stereotyped  rules.  Even 
their  grand  architecture,  with  all  its  elaborations,  was  in 
the  main  conventional  and  fixed.  Similarly,  while  their 
thoughts  and  history  were  recorded,  and  they  were  the 
first  people  to  have  a  large  and  varied  literature,  it  is  repe¬ 
titious  and  tiresome,  and  the  style  is  prescribed  and  stilted. 


Great  ad¬ 
vance  for  the 
times, 


but  limited 
in  de¬ 
velopment. 


1  Compare  Acts,  VII,  22. 


40 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Again,  while  the  Egyptians  held  to  a  rude  belief  in 
immortality,  and  in  the  case  of  the  priesthood  at  least 
had  begun  to  regard  God  as  one,  their  religion  never 
rose  beyond  a  personification  of  natural  forces  at  the 
best  and  a  species  of  animal  worship  at  the  worst. 
Their  profound  religious  awe,  while  an  advance  on  the 
superstitions  of  animism,  totemism,and  ancestor  worship, 
must  not  be  mistaken  for  an  outcome  of  philosophy  or 
analytic  thought.  Likewise,  their  religion  seldom  bore 
any  intimate  relation  to  conduct,1  and  their  teachings 
were  largely  prudential  and  imposed  in  the  form  of 
precept  without  any  appeal  to  one’s  inner  light. 

As  a  result  of  the  dominance  of  their  superstitious 
religion,  although  the  classes  of  society  were  not  organ¬ 
ized  as  an  iron-clad  system,  such  as  sometimes  occurs  at 
this  stage  of  development,  they  were  so  arranged  as  to 
suppress  the  individual  and  give  practical  control  to  the 
politico-religious  priesthood.  Similarly,  women  were  held 
in  subjection.  They  were  not  regarded  as  the  slaves  or 
toys  of  men,  as  in  some  countries  of  antiquity,  but  they 
were  not  allowed  much  freedom  or  intellectual  training. 

The  type  of  education  which  prevailed  among  the 
Egyptians  was  the  result  of  the  social  stage  they  were 
in,  and  was,  in  turn,  somewhat  calculated  to  perpetuate 
it.  By  means  of  education  the  professions  were  to  be 

1  At  one  period,  however,  religion  must  have  had  a  close  connection 
with  conduct  to  have  given  rise  to  the  elaborate  confession  in  the  Book 
of  the  Dead. 


EGYPT 


41 


handed  down,  and  with  them  the  class  distinctions  that 
were  connected.  The  teaching  class,  however,  had  not 
yet  been  differentiated  from  the  priesthood,  although 
it  was  recognized  that  instruction  could  no  longer  be 
carried  on  in  the  family.  Their  method,  while  some¬ 
what  more  conscious  than  mere  imitation,  did  not  recog¬ 
nize  individuality  and  was  not  yet  a  matter  of  genuine 
rationality.  Their  complex  system  of  writing  and  their 
body  of  traditions  required  a  tremendous  effort  of  mem¬ 
ory  to  learn,  which  prevented  an  intellectual  develop¬ 
ment  of  more  value. 

With  this  system  of  education,  great  advancement 
was  impossible  for  Egypt.  She  produced,  to  be  sure, 
through  the  commerce  of  the  Phoenicians,  considerable 
effect  upon  the  art,  learning,  and  religion  of  the  Greeks 
and  other  later  peoples,  and  thus  contributed  her  share 
to  the  world’s  progress.  But  while  in  many  of  the  fun¬ 
damentals  hers  was  the  earliest  civilization,  it  was,  after 
all,  but  the  first  link  in  the  chain.  New  ideals  and  forms 
of  expression  were  needed  before  civilization  could  con¬ 
tinue  its  onward  march. 


Some  effect 

upon 

progress 

through  the 

Phoenicians 

and  the 

Greeks. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 
I.  Sources 

Diodorus,  Bk.  I;  Eusebius,  Fragments;  Herodotus,  Bk.  II; 
Manetho,  Fragments ;  Plutarch,  Isis  and  Osiris ;  Strabo, 

Bk.  XVII. 


42 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


II.  Authorities 

Breasted,  J.  H.  A  History  of  the  Egyptians. 

Brugsch-Bey,  H.  Egypt  under  the  Pharaohs  (translated). 
Edwards,  Amelia  B.  Pharaohs ,  Fellahs ,  and  Explorers. 

Erman,  A.  Life  in  Ancient  Egypt  (translated). 

Laurie,  S.  S.  Pre-Christian  Education.  The  Hamitic  Races. 
Maspero,  G.  FA rcheologie  Egyptienne. 

Maspero,  G.  The  Dawn  of  Civilization  in  the  East  (translated). 
Petrie,  Flinders.  History  of  Egypt. 

Petrie,  Flinders.  Religion  and  Conscience  in  Ancient  Egypt. 
Rawlinson,  G.  The  Story  of  Ancient  Egypt. 

Renouf,  P.  Le  P.  The  Origin  and  Growth  of  Religion  as  Illus¬ 
trated  by  the  Religion  of  Ancient  Egypt. 

Schmidt,  K.  Geschichte  der  Padagogik ,  Vol.  I,  Chap.  I,  pp.  194- 
250. 

Wilkinson,  J.  G.  The  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient 
Egyptians . 


CHAPTER  V 


BABYLONIA  AND  ASSYRIA 

Historical  Relations.  —  The  history  of  Babylonia  must 
have  begun  a  little  after  3000  b.c.1  Her  empire,  how¬ 
ever,  came  before  that  of  Egypt,  for  from  2300  to  1600 
b.c.,  beginning  with  the  reign  of  the  famous  Hammu¬ 
rabi,  Babylonia  had  extended  not  only  over  all  the 
Euphrates-Tigris  district,  but  throughout  Syria.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  rule  of  the  Kassite  kings,  however,  the  country 
was  greatly  weakened,  and  the  city  of  Assur  revolted 
and  eventually  developed  into  the  kingdom  of  Assyria. 
Then  for  several  centuries  Babylonia  and  Assyria 
were  on  terms  of  equality  and  diplomacy,  broken  more 
or  less  by  short  wars  for  supremacy,  but  Assyria 
gradually  rose  to  preeminence,  until  in  the  tenth  cen¬ 
tury  she  had  begun  to  extend  her  sway  over  Babylonia 
and  the  other  surrounding  nations,  and  by  670  b.c. 
possessed  the  greatest  empire  known  until  that  time. 
However,  her  splendor  faded  rapidly.  Before  the  close 
of  the  century  the  mighty  empire  fell  to  pieces  under 

1  Recent  discovery  has  at  last  settled  the  age  of  Babylonian  civilization. 
Its  earliest  monuments  do  not  extend  back  to  3000  B.C.  See  Breasted, 
A  History  of  the  Egyptians  (second  edition),  pp.  viii,  419  ff.,  and  443. 


43 


44 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Babylonia 
and  Assyria 
are  comple¬ 
mentary  in 
their  history. 


Predomi¬ 
nance  of  the 
sacerdotal 
class. 


the  joint  attack  of  the  Medes  and  her  southern 
province,  Babylonia,  which  was  at  that  time  dominated 
by  the  fierce  Chaldeans.  Chaldean  Babylonia  then 
enjoyed  a  brief  period  of  restored  magnificence,  but  in 
538  b.c.  the  Medes,  now  combined  with  the  Persians, 
completely  crushed  their  former  ally. 

Thus  Babylonia  and  Assyria  seem  to  be  complemen¬ 
tary  in  their  history,  which  lasts  from  3000  to  538  b.c. 
They  may  well  be  considered  together,  especially  as 
Assyria  borrowed  the  Babylonian  learning  without 
making  any  important  contribution  in  return.  The 
Babylonio-Assyrian  civilization  was,  as  a  whole,  quite 
similar  to  that  of  Egypt,  which  has  been  described  at 
length,  and  therefore,  while  of  great  historic  importance 
in  itself,  will  not  need  an  extended  account  here. 

Social  Conditions.  —  The  classes  of  society  in  Baby¬ 
lonia  and  Assyria  were  about  as  distinct  as  in  Egypt, 
and  the  influence  of  the  priests,  who  also  constituted 
the  judges,  scribes,  librarians,  teachers,  authors,  and 
other  professional  men,  was  almost  as  pervasive.  They 
ranked,  with  the  nobility,  next  to  the  king,  and  while 
Babylonia,  and  even  more  Assyria,  attached  greater 
importance  to  military  affairs  than  did  Egypt,  the 
soldiers  never  reached  the  social  dignity  of  the  priest¬ 
hood.  The  common  people  seldom  owned  land  and 
were  never  allowed  any  part  in  public  affairs.  Since, 
however,  both  countries  were  very  accessible,  and  found 


BABYLONIA  AND  ASSYRIA 


45 


it  desirable  to  exchange  their  agricultural  products  and 
manufactures  for  the  stone,  wood,  and  metals  they 
lacked,  their  commerce  expanded  early,  and  the  impor¬ 
tance  of  merchants,  tradesmen,  and  artisans  increased 
until  they  were  almost  equal  in  rank  with  the  privileged 
classes.  Certainly  society  never  stratified  into  castes. 
Also  women  were  treated  with  more  consideration  than 
in  most  Oriental  nations,  but,  as  in  Egypt,  a  wealthy 
man  might  have  concubines,  and  women  were  com¬ 
pletely  under  the  control  of  their  husbands. 

Religion  and  Ethics.  —  The  Babylonio-Assyrian  reli¬ 
gion  was  as  crude  as  the  Egyptian  in  its  formulation. 
At  the  earliest  period  it  consisted  in  a  worship  of  arbi¬ 
trary  spirits,  who  could  be  exorcised  by  formulae. 

While  these  demons  evolved  into  gods  who  typified 

* 

great  natural  forces,  such  as  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars, 
and  the  rain,  storm-wind,  and  watery  deep,  it  was  still  be¬ 
lieved  necessary  to  get  into  harmony  with  them  through 
astrology  and  magic.  At  first,  as  in  Egypt,  each  Baby¬ 
lonian  city  had  its  own  temples  and  gods,  but  gradually, 
as  the  cities  were  unified,  a  pantheon  with  a  supreme 
god  was  organized.  This  chief  deity  was  Bel  of  Nippur 
until  Babylon  rose  to  prominence  and  made  Mcirdiik 
supreme.  Assyria  accepted  the  pantheon,  but  placed 
her  own  god,  Ashur ,  at  the  head.  Probably,  as  in 
Egypt,  through  this  henotheism,  the  priesthood  and 
more  intelligent  people  came  to  believe  in  a  single 


Subordina¬ 
tion  of 
women. 


Nature 

worship, 


henotheism, 


4  6 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


and  cere¬ 
monial 
ethics. 


Science  was 
empirical 
and  super¬ 
stitious  ; 


supreme  being,  of  whom  the  other  gods  were  merely 
aspects,  and,  without  giving  up  their  augury  and  magic, 
dimly  apprehended  the  ideas  of  sin,  penitence,  and 
dependence  on  God.  This  led  to  some  moral  aspira¬ 
tion,  but  unfortunately  they  were  still  unable  to  distin¬ 
guish  between  ceremonial  and  ethical  transgressions, 
and  fear  remained  their  moral  motive.  Superstitious 
observances  continued  to  cloak  cruelty,  treachery,  and 
sensuality.  Their  idea  of  the  future  life  was  generally 
less  hopeful  than  that  of  the  Egyptians.  Except  in  the 
Gilgamesh  Epic>  they  described  the  abode  of  the  dead 
as  dark  and  dreary. 

Culture.  —  In  their  other  intellectual  activities  the 
Babylonio-Assyrians  were  likewise  defective.  They 
achieved  much  in  science,  but  altogether  empirically 
and  with  a  curious  admixture  of  superstition.  Both 
countries  were  covered  each  spring  with  a  rich  alluvial 
deposit  from  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  and,  as  in 
Egypt,  the  inhabitants  were  compelled  to  become 
skilled  in  all  forms  of  engineering.  Similarly,  arith¬ 
metic,  geometry,  and  mechanics  made  some  progress, 
but  were  entirely  practical.  They  had  a  complicated 
numerical  system,  compounded  of  the  decimal  and  sexa¬ 
gesimal,  and  crude  measures  of  length,  area,  capacity, 
and  weight,  derived  from  handbreadth  as  a  standard. 
Geometry  was  used,  but  largely  for  mapping  out  the 
heavens  in  augury.  They  made  many  astronomical 


I 


BABYLONIA  AND  ASSYRIA  47 

discoveries,  such  as  the  movements  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  the  calendar  year,  and  the  calculation  of 
eclipses,  invented  the  signs  of  the  zodiac,  and  named 
the  points  of  the  compass  and  several  constellations, 
but  astronomy  had  not  yet  evolved  from  astrology,  and 
they  used  this  knowledge  mainly  for  horoscopes  and 
divination.  In  their  theory  the  earth  was  an  inverted 
bowl  with  the  edges  resting  on  the  waters;  mankind 
dwelt  upon  the  outside  and  the  dead  within  the  crust ; 
while  above  was  the  heaven,  another  bowl,  on  the  under 
side  of  which  moved  the  heavenly  bodies.  Likewise, 
medicine  could  not  become  a  genuine  science  with 
them,  for  they  attributed  all  diseases  to  evil  spirits,  and 
while  some  real  remedies  were  discovered  by  chance, 
their  treatment  often  consisted  in  magic. 

The  architecture  and  art  of  the  Babylonians  and 
Assyrians,  although  comparatively  advanced,  inclined 
toward  conventionality.  While  in  their  palaces  and 
temples  technical  skill  is  shown,  these  structures  are 
now  famed  for  their  immense  size  rather  than  for 
variety  and  beauty.  Because  of  the  scarcity  of  stone, 
they  were  always  of  brick,  and  were  built  upon  a  rec¬ 
tangular  platform  of  the  same  material  some  forty  feet 
above  the  ground.  The  temples  were  of  the  ziggurat 
type ;  that  is,  they  consisted  of  a  tower  of  several  sto¬ 
ries,  each  smaller  than  the  one  beneath.  The  palaces, 
especially  those  of  the  Assyrian  monarchs  at  Nineveh 


architecture 
and  art 
were  con¬ 
ventional  ; 


48 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


and  litera¬ 
ture,  though 
somewhat 
advanced, 
was  repe¬ 
titious  and 
formulaic. 


during  the  empire,  were  more  elaborate,  having  halls 
and  galleries  lined  with  sculptured  alabaster,  but  even 
these  were  all  rectangular,  one  story  in  height,  and 
after  the  same  general  plan.  The  Babylonio-Assyrian 
art,  which  consisted  largely  of  bas-reliefs  and  sculpture, 
was  more  varied  and  accurate  in  detail,  and  showed 
greater  strength  and  freedom  than  in  any  other  Ori¬ 
ental  country,  yet  it  savored  of  stiffness  and  naturalism. 
In  the  arts  and  crafts,  especially  baking  bricks  and 
pottery,  engraving  hard  stones,  weaving  woolen  cloths 
and  rugs,  and,  during  the  Kassite  period,  coloring 
glass,  these  people  were  also  expert,  but  generally 
conventional. 

To  judge  from  the  number  of  libraries  of  clay  books 
that  have  been  excavated,  literature  was  highly  es¬ 
teemed  by  both  countries.  Probably  each  city  of  any 
size  had  its  own  library,  and  that  of  Assurbanipal 
(668-626  b.c.  )  at  Nineveh  contained  books  by  the 
tens  of  thousands.  As  might  be  expected,  much  of 
this  literature  was  religious  and  scientific.  Numerous 
prayers,  hymns,  rituals,  and  even  religious  epic  poems, 
including  the  Gilgamesh ,  which  contains  in  its  eleventh 
book  the  prototype  of  the  Hebrew  account  of  the 
Deluge,  have  been  discovered.  Cosmogonic  narratives 
also,  among  them  a  Creation  Epic  similar  to  the  story 
in  Genesis,  have  in  large  part  been  preserved.  Sev¬ 
eral  collections  of  the  science  of  the  day,  such  as  the 


BABYLONIA  AND  ASSYRIA 


49 


Illumination  of  Bel  in  seventy-two  books,  have  likewise 
been  recovered.  Assyria  furnishes  especially  historical 
inscriptions  and  an  account  of  the  diplomacy  between 
the  two  countries  from  1450  to  700  b.c.,  known  as  the 
Synchronistic  History  of  Assyria  and  Babylonia.  Also 
royal  proclamations,  official  letters,  tribute  lists,  judicial 
decisions,  and  systems  of  laws,  especially  the  famous 
Code  of  Hammurabi ,  give  us  historical  knowledge 
from  the  early  days  of  Babylonia  down.  Reading 
books,  grammars,  and  lexicons  mark  the  emphasis  on 
education. 

While  this  literature  shows  some  development  of 
imagery  and  diction,  and  at  times  even  rhythm  and 
meter,  it  is  made  up,  in  general,  of  short,  simple  sen¬ 
tences,  filled  with  imitation,  repetition,  and  formulaic 
expressions,  and  consists  largely  of  bare  realism.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  Chaldean  period  it  degenerated  into  great  elab¬ 
oration  and  artificiality  without  any  new  thought. 

Aim  of  Education.  —  The  educational  aim  of  such  a 
people,  as  in  Egypt,  was  necessarily  practical  in  the 
narrow  sense  of  the  word,  for  it  was  intended  only 
as  a  preparation  for  the  various  professions.  As  this 
professional  training  was  limited  to  the  sacerdotal  class, 
including  the  scribes,  the  system  may  also  be  described 
as  priestly. 

Organization  and  Content.  —  Practically  nothing  is 
known  concerning  the  schools  in  which  the  elements 


Practical 
and  priestly 
education. 


Elementary 
and  higher 
education. 


50 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Memorizing 
and  imita¬ 
tion. 


Their  culture 
was  absorbed 
by  the 

Phoenicians, 


were  taught,  but  the  opportunities  to  obtain  this  train¬ 
ing  must  have  been  numerous  and  widespread.  The 
higher  education  was  given  in  colleges  connected  with 
the  temples,  although  the  great  libraries  must  also  have 
furnished  a  means  of  study  for  all  who  were  ambitious. 
A  wide  range  of  technical  subjects,  such  as  engineer¬ 
ing,  mathematics,  astronomy,  divination,  natural  sci¬ 
ence,  medicine,  architecture,  art,  literature,  and  history, 
must  have  been  taught. 

Method.  —  Teaching  seems  to  have  been  largely  con¬ 
ducted  through  memorizing  and  imitation.  The  Baby- 
lonio-Assyrian  writing,  which  consisted  of  cuneiform, 
or  wedge-shaped,  characters,  was,  like  the  Egyptian, 
‘ideographic’;  that  is,  it  had  a  separate  sign  for 
every  idea.  When  they  had  learned  the  characters, 
the  pupils  imitated  the  copies  set  them  on  slabs  of 
fine  clay,  which  were  then  sent  to  the  potter  to  be 
baked.  Many  tablets  with  school  exercises  on  them 
have  been  found  in  Babylon.  The  methods  used  in 
the  higher  education  must  have  been  similar.  The 
identity  of  the  teachers  of  the  elementary  work,  who 
were  probably,  numerous,  and  gave  their  instruction 
individually  rather  than  by  classes,  is  unknown.  Of 
course  the  priests  taught  the  higher  work. 

Influence  upon  Progress.  —  It  will  be  seen  that,  al¬ 
though  the  Babylonio-Assyrian  civilization  and  educa¬ 
tion  were  connected  with  considerable  development, 


BABYLONIA  AND  ASSYRIA 


51 


progress  in  these  countries  was  subject  to  limitations  Greeks,  and 

Israelites 

similar  to  those  in  Egypt.  Conventions  controlled 
their  activities,  and  individuality  was  largely  disre¬ 
garded.  The  most  evident  contributions  appear  in 
their  influence  upon  the  Phoenician  arts  and  com¬ 
merce,  upon  the  epic  and  other  literature  of  the 
Greeks,  and  in  those  legendary  conceptions  which, 
purified  of  their  polytheism,  the  Israelites  used  as  a 
means  of  teaching  profound  religious  truth. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 
I.  Sources 

Harper,  R.  F.  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  Literature. 

Harper,  R.  F.  Code  of  Hammurabi. 

Hilprecht,  H.  V.  Excavations  in  Assyria  and  Babylonia. 

J  astro w,  M.  A  Fragment  of  the  i  Dibbara  ’  Epic. 

Sayce,  A.  H.  Records  of  the  Past.  Especially  Vol.  I,  Chaps.  I, 

V-VIII ;  and  Vol.  II,  Chaps.  VII-IX. 

II.  Authorities 

Goodspeed,  G.  S.  A  History  of  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians. 

Hastings,  J.  A  Dictionary  of  the  Bible.  Articles  on  Assyria, 

Babylonia,  Races  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  Semites. 

Hilprecht,  H.  V.  Recent  Research  in  Bible  Lands.  Pp.  43-95. 

Jastrow,  M.  Religion  of  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians. 

Laurie,  S.  S.  Pre-Christian  Education.  The  Semitic  Races  (2). 

Maspero,  G.  The  Dawn  of  Civilization  in  the  East. 

Sayce,  A.  H.  Babylonians  and  Assyrians  :  Life  and  Customs. 

Sayce,  A.  H.  The  Origin  and  Growth  of  Religion ,  as  Illustrated 
by  the  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Babylonians. 

Smith,  W.  R.  Lectures  on  the  Religion  of  the  Semites. 


CHAPTER  VI 


PHCENICIA 


Arts  and 
crafts,  navi¬ 
gation,  and 
the  phonetic 
alphabet. 


Of  the  other  Semitic  nations  of  the  Ancient  Orient, 
the  Phoenicians  and  Israelites  are  of  especial  interest 
to  the  history  of  education,  because  of  their  influence 
upon  civilization.  The  history  of  the  Israelites  lasted 
until  so  much  later,  and  their  culture  was  so  superior 
to  that  of  the  other  Semites,  the  nation  is  treated  else¬ 
where1  with  countries  of  a  higher  type.  But  Phoeni¬ 
cia’s  development  was  of  a  lower  order. 

Achievements.  —  Phoenicia  itself  consisted  of  a  nar¬ 
row  strip  between  the  Lebanon  mountains  and  the 
Mediterranean  less  than  two  thousand  square  miles  in 
area,  but  its  permanent  colonies,  which  extended  over 
all  the  islands  and  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  and 
Aegean  even  to  Spain,  made  up  an  empire  of  no 
mean  dimensions.  This  widespread  settlement  and  the 
influence  of  the  Phoenicians  were  due  to  the  extent  of 
their  commerce  and  manufactures,  in  which  they  sur¬ 
passed  all  ancient  peoples.  They  were,  like  all  com¬ 
mercial  people,  shrewd .  and  ingenious ;  and,  while 


i 


1  See  Chap.  XI. 
52 


PHCENICIA 


53 


somewhat  lacking  in  originality,  they  borrowed  the 
arts  and  crafts  of  the  lands  they  visited.  Thus  they 
took  from  Egypt,  Babylonia,  and  Assyria  their  archi¬ 
tecture,  sculpture,  and  bas-reliefs,  textiles,  glass-making, 
mining,  ornamental  metallurgy,  gem-engraving,  and 
ivory-carving,  and  improved  somewhat  upon  them. 
They  also  greatly  developed  the  science  of  navigation, 
and  spread  throughout  the  known  world  the  systems 
of  weights,  measures,  and  money  they  had  taken  from 
the  Babylonio-Assyrians.  The  greatest  debt  owed  to 
them,  however,  is  for  the  phonetic  alphabet.  While 
the  Egyptians  and  others  had  long  before  invented  a 
method  of  expressing  speech  in  written  form,  it  re¬ 
mained  for  the  Phoenicians,  from  the  demands  of  their 
commercial  life,  to  shorten  the  process  and  reduce  the 
ideographs  to  an  alphabet. 

Character.  —  On  the  other  hand,  they  had  all  the 
worst  faults  of  a  people  absorbed  in  materialism  and 
money-getting  without  moral  ideal.  They  were  luxuri¬ 
ous,  sensual,  cruel,  crafty,  hypocritical,  and  treacherous. 
The  ‘  Punic  faith  ’  attributed  to  Carthage,  Phoenicia’s 
greatest  colony,  by  the  Romans,  was  not  merely  a 
hostile  slur.  Their  mythology  and  religion  were  con¬ 
nected  with  the  sun,  moon,  and  other  nature  divinities, 
as  in  Egypt  and  Babylonia,  but  they  rejected  even  the 
small  spiritual  element  which  they  might  have  obtained 
from  the  priesthood  of  those  countries.  Their  religious 


Materialistic 
and  treach¬ 
erous  in 
nature. 


* 


54 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Industrial 
and  de¬ 
praved. 


Dissemi¬ 
nated  arts 
and  science, 
but  had 
a  negative  ef¬ 
fect  ethically. 


rites  were  disgusting,  and  at  times  included  even  the 
sacrifice  of  their  own  children. 

Education.  —  Little  is  known  of  their  formal  educa¬ 
tion,  but  from  the  character  of  their  civilization  it  would 
naturally  be  industrial  and  commercial  in  aim.  In 
a  country  where  writing  was  so  universal,  there  must 
have  been  schools  in  which  all  young  people  could 
learn  to  read  and  write,  and  there  was  probably  some 
means  of  imparting  their  arts  and  sciences  to  those  who 
could  take  a  higher  training.  Their  ethical  teaching 
must  have  been  most  depraved. 

Effect  upon  Civilization.  —  Besides  extending  naviga¬ 
tion  and  inventing  the  phonetic  alphabet,  the  Phoeni¬ 
cians  improved  on  the  other  arts  and  sciences  of  Egypt 
and  Babylonio- Assyria,  and  disseminated  them  through¬ 
out  the  world.  They  must,  however,  have  failed  to 
make  any  allowance  for  the  initiative  of  individuals. 
As  far  as  their  religion,  ethics,  and  character  are  con¬ 
cerned,  their  influence  was  bad ;  and  they  have  little 
to  teach  us  now,  except  the  destructive  effect  of  a 
purely  industrial  education  and  absorption  in  commer¬ 
cial  success. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Hastings,  J.  A  Dictionary  of  the  Bible.  Article  on  Phoenicia. 
Laurie,  S.  S.  Pre-Christian  Education.  The  Semitic  Races  (3). 
Rawlinson,  G.  The  Story  of  Phoenicia. 

Sayce,  A.  H.  The  Ancient  Empires  of  the  East ,  Chap.  III. 


CHAPTER  VII 


CHINA 

National  Conditions.  —  A  type  of  transitional  civiliza-  its  great 

size  and 

tion,  differing  widely  from  that  of  the  Semitic  nations,  is  population, 
found  to  the  east  of  them  among  the  Mongoloid  peoples 
that  go  to  make  up  the  Empire  of  China.  This  nation 
extends  over  a  territory  almost  twice  the  size  of  the 
United  States,  and  contains  a  population  fully  five  times 
as  large.  The  country  is  very  unfavorably  situated  for  isolation, 
intercourse  with  other  nations,  and  such  outside  relations 
as  it  has  had,  especially  on  the  west,  have  been  of  so 
unpleasant  a  kind  as  to  crowd  it  back  upon  itself.  As 
it  possesses  a  remarkable  diversity  of  climate  and  a  wide 
range  of  products,  it  has  been  able  to  keep  itself  quite 
independent  of  foreign  nations. 

Chinese  scholars  claim  great  antiquity  for  their  country,  and  age. 
even  dating  its  origin  back  millions  of  years  to  the  first 
man,  who  is  said  to  have  sprung  from  chaos.  While 
the  history  of  China  is  known  with  accuracy  only  from 
the  seventh  century  before  Christ,  there  is  some  reason 
to  accept  the  implication  in  the  Book  of  Historical  Docu¬ 
ments,  edited  by  Confucius,  that  there  was  a  sort  of  gov- 


55 


56 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Effect  of 
teachings  of 
Confucius. 


ernment  by  2357  b.c.1  Although  the  system  of  educa¬ 
tion  was  not  instituted  in  exactly  its  present  form  until 
617  a.d.,1  it  would  seem  that,  practically  speaking, 
Chinese  civilization  and  educational  procedure  have  not, 
until  recently,  altered  in  their  type  for  more  than  three 
thousand  years.  During  the  last  decade  there  have  been 
most  sweeping  changes  in  the  way  of  introducing  West¬ 
ern  education  and  culture,  and  a  veritable  renaissance  is 
going  on  at  the  present  day.  But  while  it  may  not  be 
long  before  China  is  among  the  leading  civilized  na¬ 
tions,  results  are  as  yet  comparatively  meager,  and  the 
spirit  of  the  past  largely  abides. 

About  the  seventh  century  before  Christ,  owing  to  a 
series  of  weak  sovereigns,  there  was  a  century  or  more 
of  great  degeneracy  and  civil  disorder.  Through  a 
widespread  feudal  system,  the  nobles  became  practi¬ 
cally  independent  of  the  throne,  and  for  a  time  the 
country  was  in  a  state  bordering  on  anarchy.  This 

1  Opinions  among  European  scholars  are  divided.  On  the  one  hand,  the 
entire  oldest  history,  including  that  of  Confucius  himself,  has  been  denied; 
on  the  other,  the  most  insipid  tales  leading  back  to  the  third  millennium  B.c. 
have  been  taken  as  fact.  Chavannes  and  Hirth  place  some  confidence 
in  the  accounts  of  the  destruction  of  the  Shang  dynasty  by  Wu-Wang  (1122 
B.C.) ,  but  assign  the  lives  of  the  earliest  emperors  to  the  legendary  period. 
The  Chinese  statement  that  public  schools  were  established  under  the 
Emperor  Ti-k’u  (2432-2363  B.c.)  deserves  little  confidence,  and  the  foun¬ 
dation  of  the  imperial  college  and  other  schools  in  the  twelfth  century  B.C. 
is  also  open  to  some  question;  but  it  is  certain  that  the  Chinese  have 
taken  a  great  interest  in  schools  throughout  their  history. 


CHINA 


57 


condition  was  at  length  relieved  through  the  influence 
of  the  teachings  of  Confucius,  who  had  endeavored 
throughout  his  life  to  restore  the  ideas  and  customs  of 
his  ancestors.  As  a  prefect  he  instituted  these  reforms 
within  his  own  province,  and  was  at  first  fairly  success¬ 
ful;  but  he  soon  met  with  the  frequent  fate  of  reform¬ 
ers,  and  was  obliged  to  flee  and  remain  in  exile  until 
almost  the  day  of  his  death.  Afterward,  however,  he 
came  to  be  regarded  as  a  sort  of  Chinese  Messiah,  and 
his  writings,  which  are  everywhere  used  as  a  guide  to 
life  and  conduct,  are  considered  sacred. 

The  works  in  which  his  doctrines  can  be  found  are 
the  Five  Classics  and  the  Four  Books}  The  former 
were  collected 2  by  him  from  writings  of  the  past, 
except  in  the  case  of  the  last  book,  which  was  of  his 
own  authorship.  Of  the  latter,  which  are  in  the  nature 

1  The  five  King  (‘  Classics’)  are  (i)  the  Shu,  or  Book  of  Historical 
Documents ,  covering  the  period  from  2357  to  619  B.C.;  (2)  the  Shih,  or 
Book  of  Poetry ,  which  contains  305  odes,  ranging  in  date  from  the  eighteenth 
to  the  sixth  centuries  B.C. ;  (3)  the  Yi,  or  Book  of  Changes ,  an  enigmatic 
and  symbolic  work  on  moral,  social,  apd  political  themes;  (4)  the  Li,  or 
Ritual  Books,  composed  of  three  sets  of  imperial  laws;  and  (5)  the  Hsiao , 
or  Classic  of  Filial  Piety,  which  seems  to  be  an  effort  of  Confucius  to  con¬ 
struct  religion  on  the  basis  of  the  virtue  of  filial  piety.  The  four  Shu 
(‘Books’)  are  (1)  the  Lun  Yu,  or  Discourses  and  Conversations  of  Con¬ 
fucius  with  his  disciples;  (2)  the  Works  of  Mencius;  (3)  the  Ta  Hsio, 
or  Great  Learning ;  and  (4)  the  Kung  Yung,  or  Doctrine  of  the  Mean, 
which  was  peculiarly  a  Confucian  addition  to  the  philosophy  of  the  past. 

2  Probably  they  were  colored  somewhat  by  his  own  ideas,  although  he 
declares  that  he  is  a  mere  transmitter  of  the  doctrine  of  Yao  and  Shun. 


53 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


of  exposition,  one  book  was  written  by  him,  the  second 
was  contributed  two  centuries  later  by  his  disciple 
Mencius,  and  the  other  two  are  statements  of  his 
teachings  by  still  later  disciples.  Many  other  com¬ 
mentaries  have  constantly  been  produced,  to  declare 
and  illustrate  his  teachings. 

Custom  is  the  Religion  and  Ethics.  —  Confucius  was  too  absorbed  in 

Ultimate 

Principle,  the  practical  reformation  of  morals  to  speculate  on  the 
nature  of  the  Deity.  However,  while  he  formed  no 
conception  of  a  living,  personal  God  as  the  source  of 
authority,  he  could  hardly  be  considered  an  atheist. 
He  and  his  disciples  recognized  an  Ultimate  Principle, 
Supreme  Order,  or  Heaven,  which  lay  outside  daily 
life  and  apart  from  men,  and  existed  from  everlasting 
to  everlasting.  “What  Heaven  has  conferred,”  he 
declares,1  “  is  called  nature  :  an  accordance  with  this 
nature  is  called  the  path  of  duty.”  Thus  Chinese 
religion  defines  ‘  nature  ’  as  a  manifestation  of  the  work¬ 
ing  of  the  great  Ultimate  Principle,  but  in  reality  it 
means  whatever  is  sanctioned  by  the  usage  of  many 
generations  and  especially  authorized  by  Confucius. 
So,  to  the  Chinese,  truth  is  what  has  been  agreed  upon 
in  the  past ;  and  virtue  is  a  knowledge  and  observance 
of  fixed  ideas  and  customs.  Thus,  with  them,  morality 
becomes  purely  a  matter  of  knowledge;  and  their 
ethical  system,  which  appears  in  the  form  of  dogmatic 

1  The  first  sentence  of  the  Kung  Yung. 


CHINA 


59 


precepts,  with  no  appeal  to  reason,  is  the  result  of 
tradition,  and  is  altogether  formal.  Many  of  these 
moral  aphorisms  are  lofty,  but  the  underlying  basis  is 
necessarily  prudential  and  sordid.  Under  such  a 
system,  individuality  is  crushed,  and  originality  is 
largely  lost 

Socially,  this  Supreme  Order  of  Confucius  is  be¬ 
lieved  to  be  expressed  in  the  family  relationship.  In 
consequence,  this  institution  is  treated  with  the  greatest 
reverence,  and  the  head  of  the  family  is  endowed  with 
absolute  powers.  His  wife  and  children  must  render 
him  implicit  obedience  in  all  things,  so  that  women  are 
practically  slaves  of  their  husbands.  Moreover,  the 
state  is  supposed  to  be  a  development  of  the  family, 
and  the  emperor  at  its  head  is  treated  as  1  the  father  of 
the  nation.’  He  is  to  be  obeyed  without  question,  and 
has  absolute  control  of  the  life  and  death  of  his  subjects. 
Hence  the  fourth  of  the  Confucian  Classics1  declares  : 
“  When  nothing  is  left  incomplete  or  improperly  dis¬ 
charged  ;  this  is  what  is  called  perfection.  There  is  a 
fundamental  agreement  between  a  loyal  subject  in  the 
service  of  his  sovereign  and  a  filial  son  in  the  service  of 
his  parents.  In  the  supernal  sphere  there  is  a  compli¬ 
ance  with  the  repose  and  expansion  of  the  energies  of 
nature  ;  in  the  external  sphere,  a  compliance  with  the 
rulers  and  elders ;  in  the  internal  sphere,  the  filial 

1  See  the  Li,  Bk.  XXII,  2. 


and  the  eth¬ 
ical  system  is 
traditional 
and  formal. 


Absolute 
control  of 
the  father  in 
the  family, 
and  of  the 
emperor  in 
the  nation,  is 
part  of  Con¬ 
fucianism. 


Numerous 
rites  and 
ceremonies 
are  pre¬ 
scribed. 


60  A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

service  of  parents  :  —  all  this  constitutes  what  is  called 
perfection.  ” 

With  so  stereotyped  a  society  and  moral  code,  it  is 
not  surprising  that  religious  observances  in  China  are 
also  thoroughly  formal.  The  Classic  quoted  from  above 
prescribes  the  exact  moral  and  social  acts  that  are  to  be 
performed  each  day  by  both  family  and  state,  declaring 
that  “  of  all  the  methods  for  the  good  ordering  of  men, 
there  is  none  more  urgent  than  the  use  of  ceremonies.” 
Connected  with  the  abstract  pantheism  and  intellectual 
ethics  of  Confucius,  there  is  a  yearly  ceremonial  per¬ 
formed  by  the  state  as  a  whole  in  the  person  of  the 
emperor-father,1  and  his  various  provincial  representa¬ 
tives.  It  is  intended  to  honor  Nature  and  acknowledge 
the  dependence  of  man  upon  the  Supreme  Order. 
The  family  idea  of  Confucianism  is  also  carried  out  in 

a  formal  worship  of  ancestors,  which,  however,  is  partly 

/ 

the  outcome  of  a  fear  that  these  spirits  of  the  departed 
might,  if  neglected,  visit  wrath  upon  their  descendants. 
But  besides  these  and  other  features  of  Confucianism, 
which  is  the  state  religion,  though  professed  only  by  the 
better  educated  people,  an  idolatrous  form  of  Buddhism,2 
and  a  still  more  degenerate  Taoism,2  made  up  of  in¬ 
cantations,  exorcism,  and  spiritism,  are  adhered  to  by 

1  See  footnote  on  p.  65. 

2  See  Sacred  Books  of  the  Easty  edited  by  Max  Muller,  Vols.  XIX, 
XXXIX,  and  XL. 


CHINA 


6 1 

the  masses  generally.  These  cults,  however,  do  not 
conflict,  but  have  tended  to  amalgamate  with  the  older 
religion,  which  had  shaped  the  Chinese  character  long 
before  the  others  entered  the  field. 

Culture. — The  language  and  literature  of  the  Chinese 
have  remained  quite  as  undeveloped  as  their  religion 
and  social  order.  The  language  consists  of  monosyl¬ 
lables,1  and  is  completely  analytic  and  juxtapositive. 
There  are  no  distinct  parts  of  speech  and  no  inflections; 
and  the  grammatical  relations  and  meaning  are  indicated 
by  position  in  the  sentence,  and  by  combinations  with 
qualifying  words,  assisted  by  tone  and  accent.  There 
is  no  alphabet,  and  the  written  characters  have  been 
modified  but  little  from  the  original  ideographs.  The 
literature  of  China  consists  largely  of  the  nine  sacred 
books  and  numbers  of  commentaries  upon  them  by  later 
writers.  The  subject-matter 2  of  these  works  consists 
for  the  most  part  of  preceptive  systems  of  morals  and 
ceremonials,  barren  annals  and  history,  and  various 
types  of  lyric  poems,  together  with  interpretative  ex¬ 
planations.  Their  literature  has  been  greatly  hindered 
by  their  early  activity  in  this  direction,  of  which  they 
are  extremely  proud.  The  language  in  which  this 
classic  literature  is  written  differs  so  much  from  the 
colloquial  as  to  be  practically  a  foreign  tongue. 

1  This,  however,  is  possibly  due  to  the  decay  of  the  original  dissyllabic 
and  trisyllabic  forms.  2  See  footnote  I  on  p.  57. 


Language  is 
analytic  and 
juxtapositive, 


literature  is 
barren  and 
formulaic, 


62 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


and  the  de¬ 
velopment  of 
science,  art, 
and  the 
crafts  has 
been  handi¬ 
capped. 


Because  of  the  Chinese  opposition  to  anything  new, 
there  has  never  been  any  real  philosophic  speculation, 
or  any  development  of  physical  or  biological  science 
among  them.  The  few  theories  they  have  invented  are 
almost  as  devoid  of  fancy  as  they  are  of  accuracy. 
Chinese  artists  have  shown  much  delicacy  of  touch  in 
carving  fans  and  card-cases,  but  while  most  of  their 
work  is  pretty,  it  is  cramped  and  out  of  proportion. 
Painting  and  sculpture  have  not  advanced  much  beyond 
rude  imitations  of  nature,  and  they  pay  little  attention 
to  perspective  or  shading.  From  the  seventh  century 
a.d.  they  have  made  beautiful  porcelain,  and,  from 
their  earliest  history,  mirrors  of  bronze,  and  have  at 
all  times  woven  mats,  chairs,  and  baskets  from  rattan ; 
but  all  their  patterns  are  imitative  and  little  subject  to 
change. 

The  Purpose  of  Education.  —  Thus  every  influence 
connected  with  the  history  of  the  Chinese  has  conspired 
to  make  them  a  most  conservative  people.  The  isola¬ 
tion  of  their  geographical  position,  the  sufficiency  of  their 
natural  products,  and  the  national  habit  that  has  re¬ 
sulted  from  such  vast  numbers  of  people  following  a 
definite  bent  for  thousands  of  years  have  done  much 
toward  creating  an  inherent  opposition  to  progress. 
The  preservation  of  the  past  has  become  the  great 
essential,  and  all  originality  is  regarded  as  impious  and 
unpatriotic, 


CHINA 


63 


Naturally,  the  educational  aim  is  a  reflection  of  their 
social  ideals.  As  far  as  it  is  conscious,  the  purpose  of 
education  is  to  maintain  conditions  as  they  have  always 
been,  and,  by  means  of  literary  training  of  a  most  stereo¬ 
typed  order,  to  reduce  to  uniformity  a  numerous  and 
heterogeneous  people.  It  is  not  intended  to  advance 
the  individual  or  social  welfare  of  the  people,  but  to  en¬ 
able  the  pupils  to  pass  examinations  upon  certain  defi¬ 
nite  requirements  fixed  for  centuries  past.  Hence  the 
Chinese  system  has  often  been  referred  to  as  the  most 
perfect  type  of  static ,  ancestor ,  family ,  or  formal 
education. 

Means  of  Education.  —  The  means  for  providing  this 
training  is  ingenious.  The  administration  of  a  school 
system  for  some  four  hundred  million  people  might 
easily  be  felt  to  be  too  cumbersome  for  any  state  to 
undertake.  At  any  rate,  the  Chinese  Empire  has  not 
attempted  this,  but  it  does  encourage  all  private  en¬ 
deavors  by  limiting  eligibility  for  every  national  position 
of  trust  and  dignity  to  the  educated,  and  it  allows  to 
practically  all  classes  the  privilege  of  securing  an  educa¬ 
tion  and  competing  for  these  honors.  Yet,  while  schools 
exist  everywhere,  and  no  boy  is  excluded  from  rising  to 
the  highest  office  under  the  empire,  the  attendance  is 
smaller  than  it  should  be.  This  is  because  the  only 
real  value  of  Chinese  training  is  to  enable  one  to  pass 
examinations  leading  to  offices  of  profit  and  honor,  and 


Intended  to 
maintain 
conditions 
as  they  have 
been. 


No  national 
system,  but 
private 
schools  en¬ 
couraged. 


64 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Twofold  or¬ 
ganization  : 
(i)  Elemen¬ 
tary  schools; 


the  educated  man  is  actually  unfitted  thereby  for  any 
other  employment,  except  teaching,  without  loss  of 
prestige.  So  only  one  pupil  in  twenty  passes  beyond 
the  elementary  work,  and  but  a  small  fraction  of  these 
remains  long  enough  to  secure  even  the  lowest  degree. 
Except  in  the  case  of  a  few  wealthy  families,  where  the 
training  is  entirely  private,  girls  are  not  allowed  any 
education  beyond  the  household  arts  and  fitting  deport¬ 
ment,  and  women  cannot  compete  at  the  examinations. 
Such  a  school  system  is  necessarily  ineffective,  in  spite 
of  its  apparently  being  so  general. 

The  organization  of  education  is  twofold,  and  con¬ 
sists  of  a  system  of  schools  and  a  set  of  examinations. 
The  schools,  which  are  usually  concerned  with  ele¬ 
mentary  training  only,  are  seldom  held  in  buildings 
designed  for  the  purpose.  The  master’s  own  dwelling 
or  that  of  some  wealthy  patron,  an  old  pagoda  or 
temple,  or  even  a  shed,  is  ordinarily  used  as  a  school- 
house.  The  schoolrooms  are,  as  a  rule,  far  from 
attractive.  In  them  are  generally  a  study-table  and 
armchair  for  the  teacher,  and  a  picture  or  altar  of 
Confucius  in  one  corner  of  the  room.  The  boys  bring 
their  own  tables  and  chairs  or  stools,  and  provide  them¬ 
selves  with  books,  paper,  pencils,  and  India  ink.  Much 
ceremony  is  practiced,  and  is,  doubtless,  necessary  to  keep 
alive  any  respect  under  such  bare  surroundings.  When 
a  pupil  first  goes  to  school,  about  the  age  of  seven,  he 


CHINA 


65 


is  dressed  in  festal  garb  with  a  tasseled  cap.  As  soon 
as  he  has  entered  the  room,  he  prostrates  himself  before 

i 

the  picture  of  Confucius,1  and  then  with  almost  equal 
reverence  he  bows  to  the  teacher.  Thereafter,  he  be¬ 
gins  every  morning  of  his  school  life  with  these  two 
ceremonies.  Dr.  Martin  tells  us  :  “  In  no  country  is 
the  office  of  teacher  more  revered.  Not  only  is  the 
living  instructor  saluted  with  forms  of  profoundest 
respect,  but  the  very  name  of  teacher,  taken  in  the 
abstract,  is  an  object  of  almost  idolatrous  homage.” 

As  the  tasks  are  most  severe,  school  hours  last  from 
sunrise  to  five  in  the  afternoon,  with  an  intermission 
from  ten  to  eleven  for  luncheon  ;  and  school  is  in  ses¬ 
sion  practically  throughout  the  year.  Thus  the  school¬ 
boy,  being  excluded  from  all  companionship  with  those 
of  his  years,  becomes  the  veriest  drudge. 

While  students  are  generally  obliged  to  continue  their 
work  beyond  the  elementary  grades  by  themselves,  a 
few  academies  for  higher  training  have  been  founded 
under  private  auspices,  or  through  the  endowment  of 
wealthy  men  and  public  officials.  These  academies 
prepare  for  the  government  examinations,  which  com¬ 
prise  the  higher  part  of  the  scholastic  organization,  and 

1  On  the  last  day  of  1906  Confucius  was,  by  imperial  edict,  raised  to  the 
same  rank  as  Heaven  and  Earth,  who  are  worshiped  by  the  emperor 
alone.  This  action  is  supposed  to  have  been  taken  in  deference  to 
the  increasing  number  of  Christian  students,  who  object  to  bowing  to 
Confucius. 


(2)  Exami¬ 
nation  sys¬ 
tem  for 
higher  work, 


66 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


are  more  distinctively  Chinese.  From  the  ranks  of  the 
successful  are  filled  the  various  offices  of  the  empire, 
and  in  this  way  the  order  of  the  government  and  of 
society  is  preserved  without  change.  After  two  pre¬ 
liminary,  or,  as  as  we  might  say,  ‘  entrance  ’  examina¬ 
tions,  there  are  tests  of  three  grades,  each  of  which, 
with  degrees,  if  passed,  leads  to  a  degree.  An  idea  of  the  precise 
and  formal  character  of  these  examinations,  and  the 
way  in  which  those  who  succeed  are  rewarded,  can  be 
gained  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy 1  from  the  tabu¬ 
lated  outline  on  pages  68  and  69. 

Those  who  have  attained  the  doctor’s,  or  ‘  fit  for 
office  ’  degree,  may  take  a  fourth  and  final  examina¬ 
tion,  and,  upon  passing  it,  become  life  members  of  the 
Han-lin  Yuan  (‘forest  of  pencils’),  or  Imperial  Acad¬ 
emy.  The  members  of  the  Han-lin  are  the  official 
poets  and  historians  of  China.  They  virtually  serve  as 
the  emperor’s  cabinet,  and,  although  as  such  their 
educational  prerogatives  are  only  advisory,  other  offices 
of  great  importance  are  also  granted  them.  Sometimes 
the  emperor  designates  the  one  who  most  distinguishes 
himself  in  the  final  examination  as  the  literary  leader  of 
the  nation,  and  this  man  is  held  in  great  reverence  by 
all  as  the  very  flower  of  their  genius. 

There  is  no  age  limit  for  any  of  the  examinations, 

1  Authorities  differ  in  their  descriptions,  and  the  details  are  too  numer¬ 
ous  to  be  given  in  full. 


CHINA 


67 


and  not  infrequently  a  youth  has  undergone  the  ordeals 
at  the  same  time  with  his  father,  and  even  his  grand¬ 
father.  During  the  entire  time  of  an  examination  the 
candidates  are  locked  up  in  cells,  and  are  not  allowed 
to  leave  under  any  circumstances.  Even  their  meals 
are  eaten  there.  The  strain  under  which  they  labor 
must  be  tremendous ;  and  often  serious  illness,  or  even 
death,  results.  The  examinations,  however,  are  not 
always  conducted  honestly,  for,  despite  a  vigorous 
searching  of  the  candidates  beforehand,  small  editions  of 
the  sacred  books,  or  essays  prepared  in  advance,  are  some¬ 
times  smuggled  into  the  examinations  in  their  sleeves, 
and  officials  have  been  known  to  be  open  to  bribery. 

Subject-matter  of  the  Course.  —  The  entire  course  of 
study  in  the  Chinese  schools  may  be  divided  into  three 
grades.  In  the  first,  or  elementary  period,  the  pupils 
learn  the  most  important  characters  in  the  language 
and  commit  the  nine  sacred  books  to  memory.  The 
characters,  as  has  already  been  indicated,  do  not  repre¬ 
sent  sounds,  but  ideas,  and  a  different  symbol  is  used  for 
every  word.  There  are,  therefore,  fully  thirty  thousand 
ideographs,  although  only  about  five  thousand  appear 
in  the  Five  Classics  and  the  Four  Books.  In  acquiring 
these  characters,  some  six  or  seven  schoolbooks 1  are  com- 

1  The  first  schoolbook,  or  primer,  is  the  San-tsz  King ,  or  Trimetrical 
Classic ,  from  which  the  pupil  acquires  some  five  hundred  symbols.  It  re¬ 
ceives  its  name  from  the  fact  that  it  is  rhythmically  constructed,  having  three 


In  the  ele¬ 
mentary 
period,  the 
most  im¬ 
portant  char¬ 
acters  are 
learned  and 
the  sacred 
books  com¬ 
mitted. 


68 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


EXAMINATIONS  FOR  DEGREES  IN  CHINA 


First 

Second 

Third 

Place  held  .  .  . 

County  seat 1 

Provincial  Cap¬ 
ital1 

Capital  of  the 
Empire 

Number  of  cen- 

ters . 

252 

18 

1 

How  often  .  .  . 

Twice  every 
three  years 

Every  three 
years 

Every  three  years 

Length  of  ses- 

sion . 

One  day  and 
one  night 

Three  sessions 
of  three  days 
each 

Thirteen  days 

Presiding  officer 

Provincial  ex- 

Two  examiners 

The  Han-lin 

aminer 

from  the 

(Imperial 

Nature  of  the 

Han-lin 

Academy) 

examination 

Number  of  can- 

Two  prose  es¬ 
says,  and  one 
poetical,  on 
themes  from 
the  sacred 
books 

Five  or  six  es¬ 
says  on  each 
of  the  first 
two  days ; 
and  five  ques¬ 
tions  on  the 
history  and 
economics  of 
China,  for 
the  third  day 

• 

didates  .  .  . 

500  to  2000 

4800  to  10,000 

Number  that 

pass . 

About  1  in  35  2 

One  in  120  2 

A  larger  propor¬ 
tion  than  in  the 
two  other  ex¬ 
aminations 

CHINA 


69 


EXAMINATIONS  FOR  DEGREES  IN  CHINA  —  Continued 


First 

Second 

Third 

Degree  received 

1  Flourishing 

‘  Promoted 

i  Fit  for  Office.’ 

Talent.’  Cf. 

Scholar.’  Cf. 

Cf.  our  i  Doc- 

Other  distinc- 

our  i  Bache¬ 
lor’ 

our 1  Master  ’ 

tor’ 

tions  .... 

Gilt  button  on 
cap 

Gilt  button  of 
higher  order 
on  cap,  a 
couple  of  flag- 
staffs  before 
the  gate,  and 
a  tablet  on 
the  door 

Privileges  .  .  . 

Chief  place  at 

Privileges  of 

May  claim  acoun- 

banquet  and 

the  first  de- 

ty  magistracy 

funerals ; 

gree ;  but 

at  once ;  from 

spared  all  toil 

also  sure  of 

their  numbers 

through  sup- 

an  office  after 

are  filled  all 

port  of  rela- 

a  year  or  two, 

the  higher  civil 

tives ;  may 

and  sooner, 

and  educa- 

obtain  sub¬ 
ordinate  offi¬ 
cial  position, 
though  no 
right  to  ex¬ 
pect  it  3 

if  influence 
enough 

tional  offices 

1  China  is  divided  into  18  provinces,  and  these  are  subdivided  into  252  counties  and 
705  districts.  The  preliminary  examinations  are  held  in  the  districts,  and  the  tests  for 
the  degrees  are  conducted  at  the  centers  of  the  larger  divisions. 

3  The  examination  is  repeated,  if  too  large  a  proportion  pass  on  the  first  occasion. 

*  See  especially  Smith,  Village  Life  in  China,  pp.  132-133. 


70 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


In  the  second 
period,  the 
books  are 
translated ; 


mitted  before  the  sacred  books  are  taken  up.  All  of 
these  texts,  including  the  nine  sacred  works,  are  in¬ 
tended  at  this  stage  simply  to  give  a  command  of  the 
characters,  and  no  attention  is  paid  to  meaning.  Even 
if  the  ancient  literary  language  were  understood,  the 
subject-matter  is  treated  in  far  too  condensed  and 
abstract  a  fashion  for  a  boy  to  comprehend. 

During  this  period  also  the  pupils  learn  to  write, 
although  without  any  relation  to  what  they  are  reading. 
Arithmetic,  which  is  very  necessary  to  them  in  calcu¬ 
lating  their  exceedingly  small  currency,  is  never  taken  up 
in  the  school,  but  must  be  acquired  afterward  in  the 
course  of  practical  business.  This  elementary  period 
of  education,  which  lasts  some  five  or  six  years,  usually 
represents  the  limit  for  most  boys  who  go  to  school 
at  all. 

In  the  second  stage  the  nine  sacred  books  are  trans¬ 
lated  into  more  modern  Chinese,  although  at  first  no 
explanation  is  given  by  the  teacher.  Later,  commen- 

charactersto  each  line,  and  it  treats  of  a  number  of  duties  and  the  rules  for 
study.  Following  this  comes  the  Pih  Kio  Sing,  or  Century  of  Surnames , 
from  which  they  learn  some  four  hundred  family  names.  The  7'sien  Tsz- 
wan,  or  the  Essay  of  a  7'housand  Characters ,  is  studied  next.  In  this  the 
characters  are  arranged  in  two  hundred  and  fifty  columns  of  four  symbols 
each,  so  as  to  secure  rhyme  and  rhythm,  but  without  much  regard  to  con¬ 
tinuity  or  sense.  There  are  also  used  the  Yiu  Hioh  Shi-tieh ,  or  Odes  for 
Children,  the  tractate  on  Filial  Duty,  called  the  Hiao  King ,  and  finally, 
the  Siao  Hioh ,  or  Juvenile  Instructor ,  all  of  which  contain  moral  ideas  in 
the  form  of  story  or  precept. 


CHINA 


7 1 


taries  are  taken  up,  and  the  meaning  made  clear.  The 
third  period  is  occupied  with  the  writing  of  essays  and 
poems  after  the  style  and  thought  of  the  Five  Classics 
and  other  fixed  models.  These  latter  stages  of  educa¬ 
tion  last  indefinitely,  as  they  may  continue  until  the 
student  passes  the  governmental  examinations,  —  or 
finally  dies  in  the  attempt. 

Method  of  Teaching.  —  The  Chinese  methods  of 
teaching  are  formal  in  the  extreme.  They  are  based 
upon  mere  memorizing  and  exact  imitation.  While 
each  teacher  has  charge  of  from  twenty  to  forty  pupils, 
the  instruction  is  not  by  classes,  but  by  hearing  of  in¬ 
dividuals.  The  words  of  the  lesson  are  read  out  by  the 
teacher  and  repeated  in  concert  by  the  pupils,  each  of 
whom  has  a  book  open  before  him,  until  they  can 
pronounce  a  line  without  assistance.  Every  one  then 
shouts  out  the  line  until  it  is  fully  impressed  upon  his 
mind,  when  he  hands  his  book  to  the  teacher,  turns  his 
back,  and  rapidly  repeats  this  portion  in  a  shrill  voice 
without  any  idea  of  the  meaning.  After  all  have  com¬ 
mitted  the  line,  the  next  one  is  taken  up  in  the  same 
way.  Of  this  method  of  teaching,  Dr.  Smith  dryly  re¬ 
marks  :  “  Every  Chinese  regards  this  shouting  as  an 

indispensable  part  of  the  child’s  education.  If  he  is 
not  shouting,  how  can  the  teacher  be  sure  that  he  is 
studying  ?  And  as  studying  and  shouting  are  the  same 
thing,  when  he  is  shouting,  there  is  nothing  more  to  be 


and  in  the 
third,  essays 
are  modeled 
after  them. 


The  boys 
memorize 
books  by 
shouting, 


72 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


and  learn  to 
write  by 
tracing ; 


while  higher 
education  is 
obtained  by 
committing 
lectures  and 
phrases. 


Teachers  are 
unskilled, 


desired."  Writing  is  learned  by  Waving  the  teacher’s 
copy  under  the  paper  and  tracing  it  with  a  brush  until 
some  facility  is  obtained.  The  pupils  then  imitate  the 
copy  without  tracing  until  they  can  finally  draw  the 
characters  from  memory.  The  easiest  symbols  are 
learned  first,  and  the  writing  is  gradually  made  smaller 
as  skill  is  acquired. 

The  higher  education  in  explaining  the  sacred  books 
and  in  essay  writing  is  similarly  crude  in  method.  Ex¬ 
planatory  lectures  on  the  Five  Classics  and  the  Four 
Books  are  given  at  the  private  and  public  academies, 
and  are  largely  committed  to  memory.  Prose  and 
verse  composition  on  the  topics  discussed  are  also 
written  at  frequent  intervals.  These  essays  cannot 
show  any  originality,  but  must  employ  the  thought, 
style,  and  meter  of  the  sacred  books  or  of  certain  dis¬ 
tinguished  scholars  whose  productions  are  memorized 
for  this  purpose.1  Such  a  method  would  be  about 
equivalent  to  requiring  our  American  schoolboys  to 
produce  compositions  after  the  style  and  subject-matter 
of  Wyclif  or  Chaucer. 

No  examinations  or  licensing  of  teachers,  or  super¬ 
vision  of  their  work,  is  attempted  by  the  government. 
The  elementary  schools  are  generally  taught  by  those 
who  have  obtained  only  the  first  degree  and  have  as  yet 

1  The  slow  and  stereotyped  fashion  in  which  composition  is  learned  is 
more  fully  described  by  Martin  in  his  Lore  of  Cathay ,  pp.  293-294. 


CHINA 


73 


found  no  official  opening,  or  often  by  those  who  have 
failed  to  secure  even  this  distinction.  We  are,  there¬ 
fore,  not  surprised  to  learn  from  an  eminent  authority 1 
that  “To  the  enormous  oversupply  of  school-teachers 
it  is  due  that  one  of  the  most  honorable  callings  is  at 
the  same  time  one  of  the  most  ill-paid.”  In  the  higher 
work,  however,  where  the  salaries  are  much  better, 
even  the  ‘doctors  ’  are,  as  a  matter  of  preference,  some¬ 
times  engaged.  With  methods  so  poor,  it  is  not  sur-  anddisci- 
prising  that  an  artificial  stimulus  is  necessary,  or  that  hlTsh!5 
the  bamboo  is  frequent  and  merciless  in  its  appli¬ 
cations. 

Results  of  Chinese  Education.  —  Thus  every  feature 
of  the  social  and  intellectual  life  of  the  Chinese  has  in 
the  past  stamped  them  as  non-progressive.  While  they 
have  not  been  altogether  as  stationary  as  sometimes  de¬ 
scribed,  and  at  present  are  introducing  European  civili¬ 
zation  at  a  most  surprising  rate,  their  advancement  in 
the  past  has  been  in  spite  of  themselves.  The  chief 
tenets  of  the  prevailing  religion  are  the  maintenance  of 
an  unchanging  order  and  a  static  system  of  ethics. 

The  worship  of  antiquity  and  ancestors,  and  the  formal 
ceremonial,  together  with  the  family  ideal  of  govern¬ 
ment  at  home  and  in  the  state,  are  natural  outgrowths. 

The  rules  for  conduct  are  prescribed,  and  must  be 
committed  to  memory.  In  consequence,  moral  judg- 

1  Smith,  Village  Life  in  China ,  pp.  73-74. 


7  4 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


The  Chinese 
are  bound  to 
the  past,  and 
individuality 
is  sup¬ 
pressed. 


merits  are  not  well  developed  with  them,  and  often  no 
distinction  is  made  between  an  accidental  and  an  in¬ 
tentional  lapse.  The  Chinese  are  sober,  industrious, 
and  thrifty;  but  beneath  the  surface  of  their  fine 
ethical  precepts,  they  are  often  vain,  cunning,1  servile, 
and  immoral. 

Their  education  is  the  product  of  this  society,  and  is 
subject  to  the  same  limitations.  While  all  boys  are 
allowed  to  obtain  school  privileges,  and  it  is  possible  for 
any  one  who  can  pass  the  first  examination  to  secure 
social  standing  and  an  official  position,  because  of  the 
time  and  money  needed  to  secure  it  and  its  worthless¬ 
ness  to  one  who  fails  at  the  examination,  education  is 
not  common  among  the  masses  of  the  people.  So, 
although  the  nominal  opportunities  offered  prevent  the 
formation  of  any  definite  system  of  castes,  and  may 
help  to  keep  the  people  contented,  the  social  order 
is  in  reality  largely  predetermined  by  an  aristocratic  edu¬ 
cation.  Not  only  does  this  training  tend  to  bind  so¬ 
ciety  to  the  past,  but  it  more  directly  prevents  progress 
by  suppressing  individuality.  The  subjects  offered  are 
purely  literary  and  must  be  learned  after  a  stereotyped 
fashion.  Even  the  ruling  of  the  paper,  the  formation 
of  the  symbols,  and  their  exact  position  is  prescribed. 
Mental  training,  therefore,  consists  mostly  in  the  devel- 

1  Commercially,  however,  the  Chinese  have  a  reputation  for  formal 
honesty.  Most  of  the  cashiers  in  the  Japanese  banks  are  Chinamen. 


CHINA 


75 

opment  of  retention,  and  the  more  important  powers  of 
analysis  and  reasoning  are  neglected.  The  pupils  are 
forced  to  load  their  minds  with  numerous  details,  and 
to  make  unessential  distinctions.  Failing  to  do  this, 
they  are  severely  punished.  Little  attention  is  given 
to  anything  that  might  foster  initiative  and  originality, 
or  fit  the  pupil  for  concrete  living,  except  in  so  far  as 
he  obtains  from  his  education  certain  rules  for  practi¬ 
cal  conduct,  or  through  it  secures  the  right  to  an  offi¬ 
cial  position.  No  training  in  calculation,  geography, 
science,  manual  arts,  or  other  subjects  needed  in  actual 
life,  is  afforded. 

Thus  Chinese  society  and  education  have  remained 
of  much  the  same  type  throughout  their  history.  In 
them  the  past  is  continually  preserved,  and  progress  is 
forbidden.  As  a  result,  the  Chinese  Empire  has  already 
endured  for  several  millennia,  and  if  outside  influences 
were  not  interfering,  it  would  continue  in  its  way  indefi¬ 
nitely.  Where  no  change  is  permitted,  stability  is  an 
easy  matter;  but  it  may  be  doubted  whether  perma¬ 
nence  without  progress  can  be  accounted  real  existence 
after  all. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 
I.  Sources 

Muller,  Max.  Sacred  Books  of  the  East ,  Vols.  Ill,  XVI,  XIX, 
XXVII,  XXVIII,  XXXIX,  XL. 


No  initiative 
or  originality, 
or  training 
for  concrete 
living  is 
possible. 


76 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


II.  Authorities 


Douglas,  R.  K.  China. 

Douglas,  R.  K.  Eurofe  and  ihe  Far  East ,  Chaps.  I— VIII. 

Hirth,  F.  The  Ancient  History  of  China  to  the  End  of  the  Chdu 

Dynasty. 

Laurie,  S.  S.  Pre-Christian  Education.  The  Uro-Altaic  Races, 
Chap.  I. 

Martin,  W.  A.  P.  The  Chinese ;  Their  Education ,  Philosophy ,  and 
Letters. 

Martin,  W.  A.  P.  The  Lore  of  Cathay.  Especially  Bk.  IV. 
Monroe,  P.  A  Text-Pook  in  the  History  of  Education ,  Chap.  II. 
Smith,  A.  H.  Chinese  Characteristics. 

Smith,  A.  H.  Village  Life  in  China.  Especially  Chaps.  IX,  X, 
and  XII. 

Williams,  S.  Wells.  The  Middle  Kingdom.  Especially  Vol.  I, 
Chap.  IX. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


INDIA 

Effect  of  Environment.  —  The  Aryan  nations,  which 
will  now  be  viewed,  were  by  nature  more  emancipated 
from  superstition  and  bondage  to  the  past  than  the  other 
countries  belonging  to  the  transitional  stage  of  culture. 
The  strength  of  their  intellect  was  largely  due  to  the  in¬ 
vigorating  surroundings  amid  which  they  were  origi¬ 
nally  placed.  The  cradle  of  the  Aryan  race,  according 
to  the  view  now  prevailing,1  is  generally  regarded  as 
Europe  rather  than  Asia,  but  those  characteristics  which 
more  commonly  mark  the  European  Aryan  did  not  sur¬ 
vive  in  that  branch  of  the  family  that  went  south  and 
dispossessed  the  aboriginal  tribes  of  India.  The  ener¬ 
vating  climate  of  this  great  peninsula,  the  chronic  lassitude 
of  the  older  inhabitants,  and  their  own  inactivity  eventu¬ 
ally  had  its  effect  upon  the  Aryan  conquerors.  They 
must  have  entered  India  somewhere  about  2000  b.c., 
and  for  nearly  eight  hundred  years  they  preserved  their 
peculiarities  to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  In  the  earliest 

1  However,  the  recently  discovered  cuneiform  material  in  Asia  Minor 
tends  to  show  the  Asiatic  origin  of  the  Iranians,  and  hence  of  the  Aryans. 


The  Aryans 
in  India. 


77 


78 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Mystic 
philosophy 
of  Brahman' 
ism. 


portions  of  their  sacred  writings,  the  Vedas,  their 
thought  so  closely  resembles  the  primitive  form  of  the 
Persian  religion,  which  never  lost  its  Aryan  vigor,  as 
very  clearly  to  suggest  a  common  origin.  During  this 
early  period  they  evidently  worshiped  the  various 
powers  of  nature,  especially  Agni,  the  Fire,  and  Indray 
the  Thunder-storm,1  and  their  religion  was  without  an 
element  of  weakness  or  inaction. 

Religion.  —  Gradually,  however,  the  debilitating  cli¬ 
mate,  together  with  various  other  causes,  led  to  the 
formulation  of  Brahmanism,  with  its  mystic  philosophy, 
which  is  almost  the  opposite  pole  of  the  Aryan  individ¬ 
ualism  and  activity.  The  old  Vedic  gods  and  the  sac¬ 
rificial  ceremonies  were  retained,  but  it  was  held  that 
nothing  except  Brahma ,  the  one  universal  spirit,  really 
exists.  Whatever  else  appears  to  have  separate  exist¬ 
ence,  even  the  earlier  gods,  is  in  reality  identical  with 
that  spirit;  and  while  men  seem  to  be  temporarily 
allowed  an  individuality  of  their  own,  they  should  seek 
an  ultimate  reunion  by  absorption  into  the  great  eternal 
spirit.  With  this  is  joined  the  belief  in  metempsychosis , 
or  transmigration  of  souls.  It  was  held  that  every 
creature  must  be  repeatedly  reborn  in  various  forms 
until  he  is  purified  of  all  desires ;  and  thus,  by  gradually 
doing  away  with  activity  and  deeds,  he  becomes  united 
with  Brahma,  or  pure  existence. 

1  See  Tiele,  History  of  Ancient  Religions ,  p.  113, 


INDIA 


7  9 


This  pantheistic  conception  was,  however,  reserved 
for  the  Brahmans,  or  priestly  class,  who  had  grown  into 
a  hierarchy,  and  kept  intensifying  the  lines  between  the 
castes.  The  masses  were  taught  only  a  polytheistic 
worship,  which,  although  based  upon  Vedic  beliefs,  em¬ 
bodied  the  fetishism  of  the  older  inhabitants,  and  multi¬ 
plied  sacrifices  and  ceremonies,  and  so  eventually  degen¬ 
erated  into  an  absurd  idolatry.  As  a  reform,  Buddhism 
arose  about  500  b.c.,  although  it  did  not  become  a  real 
rival  to  Brahmanism  for  two  centuries  and  a  half.  It 
was  founded  by  Gautama ,  more  often  called  Buddha,1 
who,  being  himself  only  the  son  of  a  warrior,  and  not  a 
Brahman,  taught  disregard  of  caste  distinctions.  It  also 
insisted  upon  the  uselessness  of  sacrifices,  ceremonial, 
and  prayers,  and  held  that  the  goal  of  life  was  a  com¬ 
plete  extinction  of  desire,  which  would  result  in  a  state 
known  as  Nirvana.  This  is  equivalent  to  self-annihila¬ 
tion,  rather  than  absorption  into  the  world-spirit.  Feel¬ 
ing  the  hollowness  of  this  transitory  world,  the  Bud¬ 
dhists  advocated  monastic  life  in  the  forests. 

Such  a  negative  ideal  of  life,  together  with  the  Bud¬ 
dhist  substitution  of  an  atheistic  belief  for  the  older 
pantheism,  enabled  the  Brahmans  about  500  a.d.  to 
crush  the  schism  completely.  By  the  thirteenth  cen¬ 
tury  of  our  era,  Buddhism  had  been  altogether  exiled  to 

1  Gautama  has  been  known  as  Buddha  (‘the  enlightened  one’) 
among  Europeans. 


Buddhism 
arose  as  a 
reform  from 
ceremonial 
and  class 
distinctions; 


but  was 
crushed,  and 
united  with 
Brahman¬ 
ism. 


8o 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


The  four 
castes, 


Ceylon,  Burmah,  Siam,  Thibet,  China,  Japan,  and  other 
places,  or  had  lost  itself  in  the  modified  form  of  Brah¬ 
manism  known  as  Hinduism.  Since  then,  education 
in  India  has  consisted  almost  entirely  of  a  training  in 

Hindu  principles  and  lore.1 

Social  Conditions.  —  A  Hindu  boy’s  whole  situation  in 
life,  including  the  education  that  he  receives,  depends 
upon  the  occupation  of  his  father,  for  the  people  are 
divided  into  hereditary  classes,  or  ‘castes.’  As  a 
result  of  the  prominence  of  the  religious  element  in 
their  civilization,  the  priestly  caste,  or  the  Bvahinancis y 
which  also  embraces  all  those  skilled  in  law,  medicine,  , 
architecture,  music,  legislation,  and  other  learning,  is 
the  highest.  It  outranks  that  of  the  Kshatriyas ,  or 
warriors,  which  includes  all  those  engaged  in  the  admin¬ 
istration  of  the  country.  The  honor  attached  to  leisure 
by  the  religion  of  the  Hindus  has  caused  those  who 
carry  on  the  industries  to  be  looked  upon  as  inferior 
to  the  former  two  classes.  The  third  caste  is,  therefore, 
that  of  the  Vaisyas ,  which  is  composed  of  merchants, 
farmers,  and  other  employers  of  labor.  The  fourth, 
or  lowest  of  all,  including  all  outcasts,  is  looked  upon 
as  ‘unclean,’  and  it  comprehends,  under  the  name  of 

1  Great  Britain,  the  present  ruler  of  India,  has  transplanted  there  a  com¬ 
plete  school  system  of  her  own  type,  and  the  various  Christian  churches, 
the  Mohammedans,  and  the  Parsis  have  interested  themselves  more  or 
less  with  education;  but  the  most  influential  factor  is  still  decidedly 
Hinduism,  and  with  its  peculiarities  alone  are  we  concerned  here. 


INDIA  8 1 

Sudras ,  the  serving  class  and  all  menials.  Numerous 
subdivisions 1  are  also  made  within  the  castes,  especially 
the  third  and  fourth,  and  many  former  distinctions  have 
now  disappeared.  Outside  the  social  order  altogether 
are  the  Pariahs ,  who,  with  the  Sudras,  are  probably  de¬ 
scendants  of  the  original  inhabitants.  The  Brahmanas 
seem  to  be  of  pure  Aryan  extraction,  and  the  second  and 
third  castes  of  various  degrees  of  mixed  blood.  But 
the  first  three  castes  are  sometimes  grouped  together  as 
Ary  as,  or  nobles  born,  as  distinguished  from  the  serving 
class,  the  Sudras. 

A  man  may  marry  a  woman  of  a  lower  caste  than  his 
own,  but  not  of  a  higher.  So  one  may  fall  into  a  caste 
below,  but  he  cannot  rise.  Neither  wealth  nor  other 
success  in  life,  nor  any  amount  of  philanthropy  or  exhi¬ 
bition  of  any  virtues,  can  lift  him  a  single  notch  beyond 
the  point  at  which  his  family  has  been  for  centuries. 
Loss  of  caste  by  one  person  in  a  family  will  degrade  all 
the  rest.  But  the  Brahmans  have  never  been  able,  since 
the  influence  of  Buddhism  was  felt,  to  place  so  strict 
an  interpretation  upon  the  caste  system ;  and  it  is  now 
generally  admitted  that  even  the  lowest  orders  may 
sometime  attain  to  absorption  in  Brahma.  All  the 
castes  are  also  allowed  to  know  a  little  of  the  pantheistic 
teachings.  Eventually,  with  the  growth  of  humanity, 
the  caste  system  must  altogether  disappear,  but,  for  a 

1  See  Code  of  Manu,  X. 

G 


and  the 
Pariahs. 


82 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


\ 


Woman  is 
supposed 
only  to 
minister  to 
man,  and 
bear  chil¬ 
dren. 


long  time  to  come,  it  is  likely  to  be  the  curse  of  India, 
and  to  mark  its  system  of  education. 

In  such  an  organization  of  society,  it  is  not  surprising 
that  woman  is  not  held  in  proper  esteem.  It  is  true 
there  have  been  some  notable  exceptions  at  all  times, 
like  the  wife  of  Rama ,  the  legendary  prince  of  ancient 
India,  whose  memory  is  worshiped  as  the  ideal  type  of 
womanhood ;  and  there  are  instances  cited  in  which 
poetesses  composed  Vedic  hymns,  and  a  woman  dis¬ 
cussed  philosophic  questions.  But  woman  s  position  in 
India  has  generally  been  to  minister  to  the  comfort  and 
pleasure  of  man,  and  to  bear  children.  The  ancient 
laws  tell  us:  “In  childhood,  a  female  must  be  sub¬ 
ject  to  her  father,  in  youth  to  her  husband,  and  in 
widowhood  to  her  sons  ;  a  woman  must  never  be  inde¬ 
pendent.  Though  destitute  of  virtue,  or  seeking  pleasure 
elsewhere,  or  devoid  of  good  qualities,  a  husband  must 
be  constantly  worshiped  as  a  god  by  a  faithful  wife. 
While  a  campaign  is  being  vigorously  waged  by  Christian 
missions  against  various  revolting  practices,  yet  even 
now,  in  keeping  with  the  Hindu  code,  girls  are  in  their 
infancy1  still  sold  for  wives,  a  gross  polygamy  is  allowed,2 
and  perpetual  widowhood3  of  a  degrading  sort  is  still 
prevalent.  The  position  of  women  in  much  of  Hindu 
society  is  little  above  that  of  slavery. 

2  Ibid.,  Ill,  12-13,  and  IX,  85-86. 

8  Ibid.,  V,  160-164,  and  IX,  65. 


1  Manu,  IX,  88. 


INDIA 


83 


Aim  of  Education.  —  Thus,  ever  since  Brahmanism 
and  brooding  reflection  first  controlled  the  Hindus,  the 
aim  of  education  has  been  to  prepare  for  the  life  to  come 
and  absorption  into  the  Infinite,  rather  than  for  achieve¬ 
ments  in  this  life.  The  chief  object  is  to  fill  the  pupils 
with  the  tenets  of  their  religion,  and  to  teach  them  how 
to  carry  out  its  injunctions.  Incidentally,  education  is 
intended  to  preserve  the  caste  system  commanded  by 
Hinduism,  and  to  keep  all  within  the  sphere  of  their 
occupation.  The  three  upper  castes  are  nominally  sup¬ 
posed  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  the  sacred  works,  but, 
outside  the  Brahmans,  custom  dictates  that  not  many 
take  advantage  of  the  opportunity.  The  warriors  are 
expected  to  pay  more  attention  to  martial  exercises,  and 
the  industrial  caste  to  acquire  through  apprenticeship 
the  arts  necessary  for  its  hereditary  occupations.  The 
Sudras  have  been  allowed  to  receive  no  education  at  all, 
and  it  has  at  times  been  even  deemed  a  crime  punishable 
with  death  to  let  them  learn  anything.  It  is  intended 
that  women  shall  remain  uneducated,  and  it  is  consid¬ 
ered  a  reproach  to  them  even  to  know  how  to  read  or 
write,  as  they  might  thereby  be  tempted  to  neglect 
their  domestic  duties.  So,  throughout  Hindu  educa¬ 
tion,  mental  development  for  its  own  sake  is  entirely 
unknown. 

Means  and  Content.  —  All  of  the  castes,  however,  ex¬ 
cept  the  Sudras,  may  now  learn  reading,  writing,  and 


Preparation 
for  the  life 
to  come. 


Elementary 
subjects  and 

traditions  are 


84 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


learned  at 
home,  and 
later  in  local 
schools. 


Higher  edu¬ 
cation  is  car¬ 
ried  on  at 
Brahmanic 
colleges, 


♦ 


the  elements  of  arithmetic,  together  with  the  special 
requirements  and  religious  observances  suited  to  each 
caste.  They  receive  this  training  to  some  extent  from 
the  laws,  traditions,  and  customs  of  the  country  through 
the  medium  of  the  family;  but  also  in  a  more  formal 
way  from  the  elementary  schools,  which  are  a  modern 
institution.  These  schools  are  held  in  each  village 
under  the  trees  in  the  open  air,  or,  during  bad  weather, 
in  covered  sheds;  and  besides  the  subjects  mentioned, 
since  the  early  centuries  of  the  Christian  era,  the  pupils 
have  been  taught  fables,  parables,  and  allegories.  The 
best  known  collection  of  these  stories  is  the  Pancha- 
tantra . 

The  higher  education,  from  about  1000  b.c.,  has 
largely  been  carried  on  in  Brahmanic  colleges  called 
Parishads .  These  were  originally  conducted  by  three 
Brahmans,  but  the  number  has  gradually  been  increased 
until  twenty-one  are  considered  the  ordinary  corps 
of  instruction.  Even  before  these  institutions  were 
founded,  however,  during  the  Vedic  period,  higher 
schools  for  the  study  of  the  religious  works  and  practices 
were  held  at  the  houses  of  the  teachers  or  at  the  dif¬ 
ferent  royal  courts.  There  are  now  also  private  schools 
that  are  not  necessarily  for  Brahmans,  in  which  the 
tuition  may  be  paid  for  by  services. 

When  a  Brahman  has  attained  a  complete  education, 
he  has  committed  to  memory  various  sacred  books. 


INDIA 


35 


The  chief  of  these  is  the  work  known  by  the  collect¬ 
ive  name  of  Veda  (‘  knowledge  ’).  It  includes  four 
manuals,  each  of  which  is  also  called  Veda.1  These 
Vedas  are  arranged  as  rituals  for  the  four  orders  of 
Brahman  priests,  when  engaged  in  sacrificing.  To 
each  of  these  metrical  portions  are  appended  various 
prose  writings  2  which  are  intended  as  commentaries  on 
the  hymns  and  prayers  and  on  their  application  to  the 
sacrifices.  “  Every  Brahmanic  family,”  writes  Professor 
Bhandarkar, in  the  Indian  Antiquary ,  “is  devoted  to  the 
study  of  a  particular  Veda;  and  the  domestic  rites  of 
the  family  are  performed  according  to  the  ritual  de¬ 
scribed  in  the  Sutra  connected  with  that  Veda.” 

From  the  different  commentaries  on  the  Veda  has 
been  drawn  the  nucleus  for  metrical  books  of  laws,  like 
the  Code  of  Manu ,  which  is  a  collection  of  traditional 
customs ;  and  for  philosophical  and  scientific  works, 
such  as  the  six  Angas  on  Phonetics,  Etymology,  Meter, 
Astronomy,  Grammar,  and  Ceremonial  respectively. 

In  all  this  hereditary  knowledge  of  the  Hindus,  which 
has  been  a  natural  fruit  of  their  contemplative  life,  the 
Brahman  may  also  be  instructed.  The  learning  that 

1  These  are  (i)  Rigveda,  a  collection  of  the  earliest  hymns;  (2)  Sama- 
veda ,  and  (3)  Yajurveda ,  which  are  largely  made  up  of  verses  from  the 
Rigveda,  the  one  consisting  of  chants  and  the  other  of  prayers  and  ritual; 
and  (4)  Alharaveda,  a  composite  collection,  popular  rather  than  hieratic 
in  its  character. 

2  I.e.  the  Brahmanas,  Sutras,  Aranyakas,  and  Upanishads. 


by  commit¬ 
ting  the 
Vedas  and 
works  drawn 
from  the 
commen¬ 
taries. 


86 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Pupil  com¬ 
mits  by  sing¬ 
ing  aloud. 


has' been  handed  down  in  this  way  is  not  inconsiderable. 
To  the  Hindus  we  are  indebted  for  our  numerical  nota¬ 
tion,  often  wrongly  attributed  to  the  Arabs.  During 
the  fifth  century  after  Christ  they  invented  an  algebra 
superior  to  that  of  the  Greeks,  although  they  were  prob¬ 
ably  assisted  by  the  work  of  the  latter.  They  early 
learned  how  to  calculate  eclipses  and  find  the  location 
of  planets  by  means  of  tables.  They  seem  also  to  have 
had  some  knowledge  of  medicine.  By  300  a.d.  they 
possessed  a  treatise  on  rhetoric,  and  had  worked  out 
a  logic  two  centuries  before  the  time  of  Aristotle ;  while 
in  the  science  of  grammar,  as  early  as  the  fourth  cen¬ 
tury  b.c.,  they  were  so  far  advanced  that  the  Western 
world  first  learned  what  philology  was  when  the  study 
of  Sanskrit  was  opened  to  Europe  a  hundred  or  more 
years  ago.  To  complete  his  course  of  study  has  always 
taken  the  young  Brahman  from  eight  to  twelve  years ; 
and  he  may,  if  he  undertakes  the  entire  range  of  Hindu 
knowledge,  spend  a  lifetime  in  the  work.1 

Method  of  Teaching.  —  Since  all  learning  has  been 
preserved  by  oral  tradition,  it  is  not  remarkable  that 

1  We  learn  from  Apastamba-sutras ,  I,  2,  12:  “He  who  has  been  ini¬ 
tiated  shall  dwell  as  a  religious  student  in  the  house  of  his  teacher,  for 
forty-eight  years  (if  he  learns  all  four  Vedas),  for  thirty-six  years,  for 
twenty-four  years,  for  eighteen  years.  Twelve  years  (should  be)  the 
shortest  time.”  Max  Muller  ( Origin  of  Religion ,  p.  156)  shows  that  at 
present  a  student  requires  fully  eight  years  to  learn  the  various  sacred 
books. 


INDIA 


87 


practically  the  only  method  of  instruction,  even  since 
writing  has  been  used,  is  a  memoritcr  one.  Even  the 
later  texts  are  so  written  as  to  be  easily  committed. 
The  alphabet  and  some  ten  or  twenty  pages  of  the  text 
are  taught  before  any  explanation  is  given.  The 
teacher  pronounces  two  or  three  words  at  a  time,  which 
the  pupil  repeats  after  him ;  and,  when  two  or  three 
verses  have  been  read,  they  are  sung  aloud  by  the  boy 
until  he  has  committed  them.  Each  lesson  consists  of 
125  to  175  verses.  The  higher  education  is  imparted 
in  a  similar  way.  Writing  is  learned  by  practicing 
the  teacher’s  copy  on  the  sand  with  a  stick,  then  on 
palm  leaves  with  a  stylus,  and  finally  on  plane  leaves 
with  ink. 

The  teachers  are  always  Brahmans,  and,  to  teach  even 
the  elementary  work,  are  required  to  pass  through  the 
complete  course  of  higher  study.1  Naturally  they 
are  treated  with  the  greatest  respect.2  They  are  not 
directly  paid  for  their  services,3  but  collect  ‘  presents  ’ 
from  the  parents,  especially  the  wealthier  men.  It  is 
considered  a  grave  offense  to  study  the  sacred  works 
without  an  authorized  instructor.4  Older  students, 
however,  are  often  used  by  the  master  to  teach  the 
younger  pupils,  and  it  was  from  India  that  the  idea  of 
the  *  monitorial’  system  was  first  obtained  by  Andrew 


Teachers  are 
treated  with 
the  greatest 
respect. 


1  Max  Muller,  Origin  of  Religion ,  p.  154. 
8  Rid.,  Ill,  15. 


2  Manu,  II,  191-208. 
4  Rid.,  II,  242. 


88 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Discipline. 


Most  of  the 
people  are 
uneducated, 
and  even  the 
Brahmans 
have  only 
traditional 
learning; 
hence  there 
has  been 
little  progress 
or  ambition. 


Bell,  and  others  before  him.  Although  individuality 
is  entirely  neglected  in  this  system  of  sheer  memory,  dis¬ 
cipline,  owing  to  the  unassertiveness  of  the  pupils,  is 
mild,  except  in  very  serious  cases,  when  a  pupil  may 
be  beaten  upon  the  back  with  a  rope  or  a  split 
bamboo.1 

Effect  upon  Hindu  Character.  —  Thus  education  in 
India  is  based  upon  a  gloomy  religious  belief  and  the 
rigid  caste  system  accompanying  it.  The  Hindu  boy 
is  impressed  with  the  unreality  and  wretchedness  of  this 
life,  and  is  enjoined  to  escape  from  it  as  soon  as  possible 
through  reflection  and  inactivity.  He  also  learns  to 
regard  members  of  the  other  castes  not  merely  without 
sympathy,  but  with  positive  hatred. 

In  consequence,  education  has  been  forbidden  to 
ninety-eight  per  cent  of  the  population,2  and,  as  far  as 
it  does  exist,  it  is  a  mere  stuffing  of  memory.  It  is  as 
little  concerned  with  real  mental  culture  as  it  is  with 
training  for  manhood  or  citizenship.  Also,  as  has  been 
seen,  while  the  Brahmans  have  handed  down  much 
traditional  learning,  it  is  blended  with  superstition,  and 
new  knowledge  of  any  sort  is  barred.  All  science  and 
inventions  are  naturally  beside  the  mark  when  emphasis 
is  laid  chiefly  on  the  life  to  come,  and  it  is  known  that 

1  Manu,  VIII,  299-300. 

2  There  is,  however,  a  remarkable  stir  in  education  to-day.  The 
Gaikwar  of  Baroda  first  introduced  free  and  compulsory  education 
throughout  his  state,  and  other  rajahs  are  following  his  lead. 


INDIA 


89 


no  amount  of  advance  in  methods,  implements,  and 
mental  development  can  make  the  slightest  change  in 

one’s  position  during  the  present  life.  The  Hindus 

* 

still  plow  with  sticks  of  wood,  as  their  remotest  an¬ 
cestors  did,  and  their  wonderful  soil  fails  to  produce  a 
tithe  of  what  it  might.  Their  crops  are  harvested  and 
threshed  by  devices  equally  antique.  They  bake  their 
bricks,  work  their  metals,  and  weave  their  cloth  with 
appliances  that  might  have  seemed  crude  to  the  early 
Egyptians.  In  fact,  they  still  live  in  the  first,  rather 
than  the  twentieth,  century. 

Similarly,  the  Hindus  have,  until  recently,  been 
greatly  lacking  in  ambition,  self-reliance,  and  personal 
responsibility,  and  have  never  come  to  any  feeling  of 
solidarity  or  national  unity.  They  have  cultivated  the 
passive  virtues,  —  patience,  resignation,  gentleness, 
peaceableness,  and  docility,  and  they  are  polite, 
respectful  toward  their  parents  and  elders,  and  obedi¬ 
ent  to  authority ;  but  they  have  accomplished  little 
for  themselves  or  civilization,  and  have  been  conquered 
by  one  nation  after  another.  The  Macedonian  Greeks, 
the  Mohammedans,  the  Turkomans  and  Mongols,  the 
Portuguese,  the  Dutch,  and  the  British  have  succes¬ 
sively  been  masters  of  their  land.  To  them  progress, 
prosperity,  and  patriotism  are  foreign  ideas.  Despite 
all  the  Hindu’s  fineness  of  intellect  and  his  idealistic 
religion,  India  seems  typically  ‘  barbarian.’ 


90 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

I.  Sources 

Muller,  Max.  Sacred  Books  of  the  East .  Vols.  I,  II,  VII,  VIII, 
X,  XIV,  XVII,  XX,  XXII,  XXV,  XXVI,  XXIX,  XXX,  XXXII, 
XXXVI,  and  XXXVIII. 

II.  Authorities 

Dutt,  R.  C.  Ancient  India. 

Dutt,  R.  C.  The  Civilization  of  India. 

Laurie,  S.  S.  Pre-Christian  Edtication.  The  Aryan  Races  (A). 
Letourneau,  C.  Devolution  de  V education.  Chap.  XIV,  A  and  B. 
Muller,  Max.  The  Origin  and  Growth  of  Religion  as  Illustrated 
by  the  Religions  of  India. 

Ragozin,  Z.  A.  Vedic  India. 

Sayazi,  Rao.  Articles  on  Education  by  his  Highness  the  Maharaja 
Gaikwar  of  Baroda. 

Taylor,  H.  O.  Ancient  Ideals. 

Tiele,  C.  P.  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Religions  (translated). 
Chap.  IV,  I  and  II. 

Williams,  M.  M.  Brahmanism  and  Hinduism . 


CHAPTER  IX 


PERSIA 

Natural  Influences.  —  The  Persians  seem  to  have  had 
much  the  same  origin  as  the  Hindus.  The  environment 
into  which  they  moved,  however,  was  far  different,  and 
they  never  lost  the  energy  and  aggressiveness  of  the 
Aryan.  Instead  of  the  enfeebling  climate  of  India, 
with  its  prolific  soil  and  dreamy  inhabitants,  they  met 
with  the  stern  conditions  of  a  barren  country  and  war¬ 
like  peoples,  and  were  spurred  to  greater  activity  by  the 
bracing  air  of  their  surroundings.  They  came  to  dwell 
on  the  high  table-lands,  hedged  on  all  sides  by  still 
loftier  mountains,  south  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  east  of 
those  Semitic  countries  at  whose  development  we  have 
already  glanced.  Although  their  country  was  grooved 
with  many  productive  valleys,  and  was  extremely  fertile 
on  the  north  as  it  sloped  toward  the  Caspian,  as  a  whole 
it  was  an  arid  land,  and  required  a  constant  struggle  to 
yield  the  barest  living.  Thus  the  Persians  were  soon 
tempted  to  prey  upon  the  wealthy  civilizations  to  their 
west,  especially  since  these  countries  had  been  over¬ 
come  by  luxury  and  sloth. 

91 


Stem  con¬ 
ditions 
produced  a 
warlike 
people. 


92 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


who  ab¬ 
sorbed  all  the 
surrounding 
nations. 

i 


An  excellent 
organization 
was  formed 
in  the 
provinces, 


About  550  b.c.  the  Persians  absorbed  their  relatives, 
the  Medes,  who  had  themselves  already  (606  b.c.),  in 
conjunction  with  the  Chaldean  Babylonians,  come  into 
possession  of  Assyria.  Bactria  and  Elam  had  also  been 
amalgamated  with  Persia,  and  Cyrus,  king  of  the  com¬ 
bined  countries,  set  out  to  extend  his  empire.  After 
conquering  Lydia  (545  b.c.),  which  had  previously  re¬ 
duced  most  of  Asia  Minor,  the  Medo-Persians  turned 
against  their  former  allies,  the  Babylonians,  who  were 
attempting  to  stay  their  progress,  and  easily  overcame 
them  (538  b.c.).  Cyrus  died  a  few  years  later  (530  b.c.) 
while  reducing  the  Scyths.  His  son  and  successor, 
Cambyses,  carried  the  Persian  conquest  into  Egypt, 
where  he,  too,  met  with  death  (525  b.c.).  The  next 
sovereign,  Darius,  cousin  of  Cambyses,  pushed  his  way 
into  northern  India  (520  b.c.),  and  carried  on  aggres¬ 
sions  in  Thrace  (515  b.c.),  where  the  Persians  came  into 
close  contact  with  the  Greeks,  and  were  led  into  the 
struggle  (500-479  B.c.)  which  ended  so  disastrously 
for  themselves.  Out  of  this,  too,  grew  the  conquests 
of  Alexander  (336-323  b.c.),  and  the  final  downfall  of 

if 

the  Persian  Empire. 

Government.  —  But  for  some  time  Persia  ruled  over 
the  largest  empire  the  world  had  known.  Darius  dis¬ 
played  much  wisdom  as  a  statesman.  He  followed  the 
Assyrian  plan  in  dividing  his  dominion  into  ‘  provinces,’ 
but  greatly  improved  upon  it.  Each  of  the  twenty 


PERSIA 


93 


provinces  was  placed  under  a  satrap ,  or  governor, 
appointed  by  the  Great  King  to  act  in  his  stead.  This 
viceroy  had  as  his  assistants  a  civilian  secretary,  with  a 
council,  and  a  general,  commanding  an  army.  While 
the  Persians  insisted  on  firmly  maintaining  their  rule 
and  crushing  any  rebellion  with  great  severity,  they 
granted  complete  local  autonomy.  Each  province  was 
required  to  pay  tribute  in  proportion  to  its  means,  but 
was  allowed  absolute  freedom  in  its  customs  and  re¬ 
ligion.  Under  such  a  centralized  government  these 
warlike  nations  were  really  better  able  to  preserve  and 
advance  their  civilization  than  if  they  had  each  been 
entirely  independent. 

The  administration  at  home  was  equally  wise  and  and  at  home, 
strong.  It  was  organized  as  a  bureaucracy,  and  'had 
seven  tribal  princes,  seven  judges,  and  various  other 
officials  who  administered  affairs,  under  the  Great  King. 

The  laws  were  just  and  humane.  In  consequence, 
practically  all  within  the  Persian  Empire  came  to  feel 
a  personal  responsibility  for  its  welfare,  and,  in  spite  of 
the  way  in  which  their  dominions  were  spread  out  and 
separated  by  impassable  mountains  and  unnavigable 
rivers,  for  a  long  space  of  time  there  remained  a  sense 
of  national  unity  and  a  willingness  to  work  together. 

Religion  and  Ethics.  —  As  might  be  expected  from  Militant  and 
the  national  characteristics,  the  religion  of  the  Persians,  rdfgioiT 
Mazdeiswt ,  was  a  militant  one.  It  recognized  two 


94 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Zoroaster 

introduced 

spiritual 

conceptions, 


antagonistic  spirits,  Ahura-Mazdah }  or  Ormazd  (*  Lord 
Wisdom  ’),  the  omnipresent  and  omniscient  creator  and 
nourisher  of  all  mankind,  and  Anra-Mainyu>  or  Ahri- 
man  (‘  Enemy  Spirit  ’),  who  arose  from  the  conflict  of 
forces  when  Ormazd  created  the  universe,  and  was  the 
source  of  all  things  evil  in  the  world.  It  was  believed, 
however,  that  Ahriman  was  inferior  to  Ormazd,  and 
would  eventually  be  vanquished  by  him. 

This  spiritual  conception  seems  to  have  been  formu¬ 
lated  first  about  600  b.c.  by  a  reformer  named  Zara- 
thushtra ,  or  Zoroaster,  as  he  is  now  commonly  called. 
Somewhat  before  his  day  there  existed  a  primitive  wor¬ 
ship  of  natural  forces2  not  unlike  the  Vedic.  The 
earlier  belief  remained,  but  the  good  elements  were 
treated  as  ministering  angels  of  Ormazd,  and  the  evil 
as  subordinate  demons  of  Ahriman.  The  chief  good 
angels  were  thought  to  be  the  divinities  of  fire  and 
light.2  Holy  fires  were  consequently  tended  by  an 
hereditary  priesthood  called  the  Magi ,  and  the  sun  was 
worshiped  by  all. 

Light,  however,  was  regarded  by  the  more  advanced 
merely  as  emblematic  of  truth,  wisdom,  virtue,  and 


1  Compare  the  warrior  deity,  Ashur,  whom  the  Medes  may  have 
adopted  while  in  captivity  to  the  Assyrians,  2200—800  B.C.,  and  later  iden¬ 
tified  with  Mazdah.  The  Medo-Persians  gained  much  from  their  contact 
with  Semitic  peoples. 

2  Compare  Agni  and  Indra,  p.  78.  See  also  Sayce,  The  Ancient  Em¬ 
pires  of  the  East,  pp.  256-257. 


PERSIA 


95 


purity.  Hence  men  were  urged,  by  overcoming  evil 
impulses  and  desires,  and  by  extending  the  power  and 
civilization  of  their  native  land,  to  enter  the  contest  of 
life  on  the  side  of  light,  and  aid  Ormazd  in  his  ultimate 
victory  over  Ahriman.  Professor  Tiele  says  of  Mazde- 
ism :  “  The  whole  life  of  the  believer  is  a  constant 
conflict  with  evil,  in  which,  as  is  universal  in  an¬ 
tiquity,  little  difference  is  made  between  physical  and 
moral  evil.  Agriculture,  likewise,  and  the  care  of  clean 
animals  and  plants  are  powerful  means  of  weakening 
the  kingdom  of  impurity.  But  the  love  of  truth,  also 
vigilance  and  activity,  are  weapons  which  win  the  vic¬ 
tory  in  this  contest.” 

But,  as  in  most  of  the  other  barbarian  countries,  the  but  the 
higher  ideals  were  held  only  by  the  most  intelligent  Zinedthe 
people ;  and  while  they  determined  the  general  condi-  worship  of 
tion  of  religion  and  society,  were  not  at  all  understood  forces, 
by  the  masses,  who  largely  retained  the  original  wor¬ 
ship  of  natural  forces.  Yet  even  in  this  case  there  was 
no  suggestion  of  idolatry,  if  Herodotus 1  is  to  be  cred¬ 
ited,  when,  before  describing  the  more  overt  ceremonies 
of  the  Persians,  he  says  :  “  It  is  not  their  practice  to 
erect  statues,  temples,  or  altars,  but  they  charge  with 
folly  those  who  do  so ;  because,  as  I  conjecture,  they 

do  not  think  the  gods  have  human  form,  as  the  Greeks 
do.” 


1 1,  131- 


9  6 


■A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Virtues 
that  were 
inculcated. 


Moreover,  a  belief  in  bodily  resurrection  was  gen¬ 
erally  held  by  the  Zoroastrians.  At  death  a  man’s  good 
deeds  were  supposed  to  be  weighed  against  the  evil, 
and  if  the  good  prevailed,  he  was  sent  to  the  ‘Abode 
of  Song,’  where  dwelt  Ormazd  and  the  saints;  but  if 
the  evil  surpassed  the  good,  he  was  cast  into  the  ‘  Lower 
World,’  to  be  tortured  by  demons.  Should  the  bal¬ 
ance  stand  even,  a  period  of  second  probation  was 
allowed  him.  It  was  believed,  however,  that  even  the 
wicked  would  in  the  end  be  purified  and  counted  among 
the  blessed. 

Clearly  Mazdeism  was  an  ethical  religion  and  gave 
some  value  to  personality  and  the  desire  to  work  out 
one’s  own  salvation.  The  chief  virtues,  as  would  be 
expected  in  a  religion  of  light  and  individual  respon¬ 
sibility,  were  truth,  justice,  gratitude,  courage,  and  self- 
control.  There  were  naturally  no  castes,  except  pos¬ 
sibly  in  the  case  of  the  hereditary  tribe  of  priests,  the 
Magi.  While,  according  to  Herodotus,1  polygamy  and 
concubinage  were  common,  women  were  held  in  higher 
esteem  than  with  most  Orientals,  and  the  Persians  were 
naturally  domestic.  Children  rendered  a  willing  obedi¬ 
ence,  and  the  family  tie  was  held  to  be  sacred.  It  was 
believed  that  he  who  slew  a  parent  must  be  a  change¬ 
ling  or  a  bastard,  for  it  was  hardly  to  be  supposed  that 
one’s  own  legitimate  offspring  could  act  in  this  way.2 

l  I,  135.  2  See  Herodotus,  I,  137. 


PERSIA 


97 


The  Zoroastrian  ideas  of  religion  are  found  in  the  The  zend- 
sacred  books  known  as  the  Zend-Avesta  (‘  The  Law  and  sacred’  °f 
Its  Interpretation  ’).  Although  Mazdeism  began  to  creep  books’ 
into  the  old  nature  worship  possibly  about  900  b.c., 
it  was  not  made  a  definite  system  before  the  time  of 
its  great  prophet,  Zoroaster,  whose  Gathas  (*  Psalms  ’) 
contain  the  most  exalted  and  spiritual  thoughts  of  the 
religion.  The  Zend-Avesta  as  a  priestly  code  was 
hardly  formulated  into  a  canon  until  a  hundred  years 
or  so  after  his  time.1  In  its  present  form  it  does  not 
date  earlier  than  the  third  or  fourth  century  of  our 
era,  and  it  has  probably  been  affected  somewhat  by 
Greek  philosophy,  and  possibly  also  by  Judaism  and 
Christianity.  There  remains  but  a  small  portion2  of 
the  original  work,  containing,  perhaps,  one  tenth  the 
material  in  our  Bible.  These  Zoroastrian  scriptures 


1  The  Greeks,  however,  speak  of  Zoroaster’s  having  composed  a  million 
verses,  and  the  Zoroastrian  tradition  itself  asserts  that  there  were  two 
archetype  copies  of  the  Avesta,  written  on  twelve  thousand  parchments, 
and  that  these  two  copies  were  destroyed  by  Alexander. 

2  The  Avesta  was  neglected  during  the  Greek  (336-250  B.C.)  and  the 
Parthian  (250  B.C.-226  A. D.)  dynasties,  but  under  the  Sassanian  mon- 
archs  (226-652  A.D.),  who  restored  Mazdeism,  about  one  third  of  the 
original  text  was  recovered.  It  was,  however,  even  more  scattered  by 
the  conquest  of  the  Mohammedans  (652  A.D.),  who  have  ever  since  been 
in  control  of  Persia.  The  remaining  portions  of  the  work  have  been 
preserved  by  the  few  thousand  adherents  of  Zoroaster  that  still  live  in 
Persia,  chiefly  in  Yazd  and  Kirman,  and  by  the  nearly  one  hundred  thou¬ 
sand  Parsisy  who  are  scattered  through  India,  and  more  fully  represent 
Zoroastrianism. 


H 


« 


98 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Military  pur¬ 
pose. 


Religious 
training  was 
given  at 
home ; 


may  be  divided  into  six  parts.1  The  first  four  contain 
litanies  and  hymns  of  praise  of  greater  or  less  impor¬ 
tance,  the  fifth2  is  a  collection  of  religious  rules  and 
legends,  and  the  sixth  consists  of  a  set  of  fragments 
and  glosses.  Most  of  the  Avesta,  except  the  Gathas , 
or  its  oldest  psalms,  is  simple  in  thought  and  style. 
The  metrical  parts  have  considerable  merit,  but  the 
prose  is  generally  tiresome  and  lacking  in  spirit. 

The  Aim  of  Education.  —  The  Persian  ambition,  how¬ 
ever,  was  not  literary  or  scholastic.  Under  the  circum¬ 
stances  it  was  but  natural  that  they  should  strive  prin¬ 
cipally  to  produce  a  nation  of  soldiers,  with  all  that 
implies  in  the  way  of  physical  education  and  training  in 
valor  and  other  virtues. 

Its  Organization  and  Content.  —  Until  he  was  five, 
the  young  Persian  was  trained  at  home  by  the  women. 
According  to  Herodotus,3  his  father  never  saw  him,  in 
order  that  he  might  not  be  grieved  if  the  child  should 
die  in  infancy.  During  this  period  the  boy  was  sup¬ 
posed  to  be  completely  unmoral,  and  was  not  expected 
to  distinguish  between  right  and  wrong,  but  simply  to 
obey  the  directions  given  him.  Girls  were  at  no  time 
allowed  anything  further  than  domestic  training. 

At  five  the  boy’s  formal  education  began.  Through 
the  family  he  was  inducted  into  the  national  religion 

1  I.e.  Yasna,  Visperad ,  Yashts ,  and  a  group  of  Minor  Texts. 

2  Vendidad.  8  I,  136. 


PERSIA 


99 


and  its  observances.  Unless  he  belonged  to  the 
wealthier  classes,  this  haphazard  knowledge,  except 
possibly  apprenticeship  training  in  some  occupation, 
constituted  his  entire  education. 

The  more  aristocratic  boys,  however,  after  this  had 
some  military  training.  Possibly  something  not  unlike 
the  rigorous  plan  of  the  Spartans  was  in  vogue  in 
Persia.1  Boys  may  have  been  exposed  to  hardships  of 
all  sorts  in  their  daily  living  as  a  preparation  for  war¬ 
fare.  They  were  probably  also  given  a  careful  physi¬ 
cal  and  ethical  training.2  In  the  open  courts  before  the 
palace  of  the  Great  King  or  one  of  his  satraps,  it  is  said 
that  they  learned  horseback  riding,  and  shooting  the 
bow,  casting  the  sling,  and  throwing  the  javelin.  It 
has  been  given  as  an  instance  of  their  skill  that  they 
could  jump  on  or  off  the  horse,  or  hit  their  mark,  when 
the  animal  was  going  at  full  speed.  On  the  other  hand, 
they  were  taught  to  speak  the  truth,3  and  cultivate 
justice,  gratitude,  courage,  purity,  and  self-control.  By 
means  of  their  national  traditions,  they  were  inspired  to 

1  The  Cyropcedia  (‘  Education  of  Cyrus  ’)  of  Xenophon  professes  to 
describe  this  education,  but  we  cannot  put  full  confidence  in  its  account. 
It  is  generally  considered  a  story  intended  to  laud  the  Spartan  system  of 
education,  and  pictures  it  in  Persia  as  the  ideal  training.  Modi  describes 
it  as  a  mixture  of  facts  and  fiction  rather  than  merely  a  ‘political  romance.' 
In  either  case,  its  statements  should  be  verified  before  they  are  accepted. 

2  Herodotus,  I,  136. 

8  The  importance  of  truth  is  emphasized  again  and  again  in  the  great 
cuneiform  inscription  of  Darius  on  the  Behistan  Rock  in  western  Persia. 


and  possibly 
physical 
and  ethical, 


100 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


and  military 
training  by 
the  state. 


They  were 
taught  by 
example  and 
imitation. 


noble  deeds,  while  by  instruction  in  the  prayers,  myths 
of  the  gods,  and  other  religious  doctrines  of  Mazdeism 
their  moral  life  was  fostered.  Other  than  in  this  indirect 
way,  they  probably  received  no  literary  or  intellectual  edu¬ 
cation.  Reading  and  writing  were  scarcely  taught  at  all. 

At  fifteen,  it  has  been  supposed,  the  boys  were  con¬ 
sidered  youths,  and  began  their  secondary  education, 
which  was  even  more  specifically  military.  This  brought 
them  for  the  first  time  into  the  service  of  the  state,  and 
the  event  was  attended  with  important  religious  cere¬ 
monies.  The  boy  was  bound  with  the  sacred  girdle 
as  a  protection  against  the  demons  of  Ahriman;  he 
recited  a  ritual  from  parts  of  the  Avesta,  and  swore 
to  maintain  the  law  of  Zoroaster. 

The  Magi  alone  required  a  higher  education.  This 
must  have  consisted  in  the  study  and  explanation  of 
the  sacred  writings,  and  may  have  included  a  limited 
training  in  philosophy,  astrology,  medicine,  law,  and 
finance,  so  that  they  were  able  to  become  advisers  to 
the  Great  King  and  his  satraps. 

Method.  —  Since  there  was  no  intellectual  education 
save  this  given  the  Magi,  there  was  no  opportunity 
for  any  real  method  in  teaching.  What  there  was  must 
have  been  very  informal.  In  the  case  of  military  train¬ 
ing,  it  consisted  largely  in  consciously  imitating  the 
example  of  men  of  dignity  and  good  repute  at  the 
various  courts.  The  moral  education  came  from  pre- 


PERSIA 


IOI 


cept,  example,  and  the  traditions  of  the  nation,  and 
was  impressed  by  constant  practice. 

Results.  —  Of  all  the  nations  in  the  transitional  stage, 
the  Persians,  as  a  consequence  of  their  educational 
system,  probably  furnish  the  closest  approach  to  a 
regard  for  individuality.  Their  religious  conceptions, 
which  have  so  close  a  connection  with  the  educational, 
show  almost  as  large  an  ethical  element  as  those  of 
Israel,  which  is  to  be  classed  among  the  nations  that 
first  tended  to  recognize  personality  in  their  education. 
Although  the  same  intensity  of  moral  sentiment  and  the 
compulsion  of  the  sacerdotal  law  were  not  felt  by  the 
Persians,  for  that  very  reason,  perhaps,  they  were  freer 
in  their  moral  judgment  and  less  in  bondage  to  hide¬ 
bound  legalism  than  the  Jews.  On  the  other  hand, 
while  the  Persians  had  no  real  caste  system,  their  priest¬ 
hood  was  hereditary,  women  were  not  educated,  and,  as 
education  existed  mostly  for  the  sake  of  occupation,  the 
great  mass  of  the  people,  who  were  not  allowed  to  enter 
the  army,  received  but  little  training  of  any  sort.  The 
government,  too,  was  thoroughly  despotic. 

These  latter  characteristics,  together  with  the  natural 
lack  of  geographical  unity  in  the  nation,  contributed 
not  a  little  to  the  downfall  of  Persia.  As  long  as  mili¬ 
tary  achievements  were  going  on,  the  people  at  home 
and  in  the  various  provinces  felt  that  they  were  part 
and  parcel  of  a  great  empire,  and  no  oppression  was 


In  Persia 
was  the 
highest  de¬ 
velopment  of 
individual¬ 
ism  among 
transitional 
nations. 


Downfall  of 
Persia  oc¬ 
curred  when 
military 
achieve¬ 
ments 
ceased. 


102 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


noticed.  But  when  the  Persians  came  into  possession 
of  the  entire  Eastern  world,  with  its  great  wealth  and 
high  culture  but  low  morals,  they  were  overpowered 
by  vanity,  luxury,  and  idleness,  and  dissensions  and 
discord  arose.  The  size  and  heterogeneity  of  the  coun¬ 
try  and  the  remoteness  of  the  various  parts  afforded  an 
excellent  opening  for  corruption  and  intrigue.  The 
majority  of  the  people  had  never  been  taught  to  under¬ 
stand  the  lofty  religion  fully,  and  even  with  those  who 
did,  it  became  debased  through  contact  with  grosser 
beliefs  and  through  the  loose  living  of  its  adherents. 
The  Persian  education,  too,  which  fitted  them  for  war¬ 
fare  and  physical  endeavor,  despite  its  ethical  elements, 
had  neglected  to  prepare  them  for  the  arts  of  peace 
and  the  enjoyment  of  leisure,  and  left  them  unequal  to 
the  moral  strain.  Degeneration  was  rapid,  and  at  the 
first  onset  of  the  vigorous  Macedonians,  the  great 
empire  burst  into  fragments,  and  left  practically  no 
impress  on  civilization.  Persia,  which  might  have 
proven  the  first  type  of  Aryan  progress,  was  forced  to 
hand  over  the  torch  to  the  Athenian  Greeks. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 
I.  Sources 

Muller,  Max  (editor).  Sacred  Books  of  the  East.  Translated 
by  various  scholars.  Vols.  IV,  V,  XVIII,  XXIII,  XXIV, 
XXXI,  and  XXXVII. 


PERSIA 


103 


II.  Greek  Authorities 

Herodotus,  Bks.  I  and  II ;  Strabo,  Bks.  XI  and  XV ;  Xeno¬ 
phon,  Anabasis,  Bk.  I,  and  Cyropcedia,  especially  Bk.  I, 
Chap.  II. 


III.  Other  Authorities 

Jackson,  A.  V.  W.  Persia ,  Past  and  Present. 

Laurie,  S.  S.  Pre-Christian  Education.  The  Aryan  Races  (B). 
Letourneau,  C.  E evolution  de  V education.  Chap.  XIV,  C. 
Rawlinson,  G.  The  Origin  of  Nations.  Pt.  I,  Chap.  VI. 
Rawlinson,  G.  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World.  Chap.  III. 
Rawlinson,  G.  The  Seven  Monarchies  of  the  Ancient  World. 
Vol.  II,  Media  and  Persia. 

Sayce,  A.  H.  The  Ancient  Empires  of  the  East.  IV  and  V. 
Tiele,  C.  P.  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Religions  (translated). 
Chap.  IV,  II. 

Vaux,  W.  S.  W.  Persia. 


CHAPTER  X 


The  Oriental 
peoples  had 
begun  to 
control 
nature ; 


CHARACTER  OF  THE  EARLIEST  CIVILIZATION 

Transitional  Stage.  —  It  can  be  seen  from  the  fore¬ 
going  account  of  certain  typical  peoples  in  the  barbarian 
stage,  that,  while  they  differ  much  in  details  among 
themselves,  certain  common  tendencies  appear  through¬ 
out  their  education  and  their  civilization  in  general.  A 
study  of  their  ideals,  together  with  the  way  in  which 
they  were  carried  out,  and  of  the  results,  makes  it  evi¬ 
dent  that,  although  superior  to  primitive  conditions,  their 
civilization  had  not  yet  attained  to  the  level  of  later  times. 

Their  advance  over  savagery  is  revealed  in  their 
growing  ability  to  analyze  experience  and  to  make 
generalizations  that  were  impossible  for  the  primitive 
mind.  They  must  have  obtained  some  insight  into 
nature  and  learned  to  formulate  her  laws.  The  use  of 
fire  became  generally  understood,  and  the  metals  were 
molded  into  weapons,  utensils,  and  tools.  They  no 
longer  wandered  over  the  face  of  the  earth  in  search 
of  sustenance,  but  settled  down  and  depended  more  or 
less  upon  agriculture.  The  sciences  sprang  up,  and 
art,  architecture,  and  handicrafts  began  to  appear.  A 

104 


CHARACTER  OF  EARLIEST  CIVILIZATION  105 


division  of  labor  naturally  followed,  and  the  blood  tie 
of  clan  and  tribe  was  gradually  displaced  by  the  rela¬ 
tionship  of  kindred  occupations. 

Restricted  Ideals.  —  However,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Semitic  nations,  whose  more  advanced  civilization 
imposed  itself  upon  all  with  whom  they  came  in  con¬ 
tact,  without  being  much  affected  in  return,  these 
peoples  were  largely  isolated,  and  by  an  imperceptible 
selection  of  satisfactory  activities,  traditional  forms  of 
expression  gradually  grew  up.  After  these  had  been 
conformed  with  sufficiently  to  fix  them  as  social  habits, 
they  became  ideals  for  education  as  well  as  for  society 
in  general. 

Thus,  although  social  organization  had  become  much 
more  complex,  the  educational  ideal,  as  in  savagery, 
may  be  described  as  the  satisfaction  of  immediate 
needs.  While  among  primitive  tribes  education  was 
the  same  for  all  individuals  of  the  male  sex,  it  had  now, 
because  of  the  division  of  labor  that  had  grown  up, 
become  more  differentiated  and  fitted  for  specific  pro¬ 
fessions.  In  this  way  arose  class  distinctions,  which  in 
India  at  least  were  hardened  into  hereditary  castes. 
All  of  these  nations  intended  that  young  people  should 
be  educated  according  to  the  position  in  society  they 
desired,  expected,  or,  among  the  Hindus,  were  required 
to  fill. 

They  seem  never  to  have  realized  the  importance  of 


but  had  class 
distinctions, 
and  opposed 
the  develop¬ 
ment  of  the 
individual. 


io  6 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Education 
consisted  in 
training  for 
the  occupa¬ 
tion  one  was 
to  follow. 


the  individual  as  the  progressive  factor  in  civilization. 
They  supposed  that  all  innovations  were  opposed  to  the 
welfare  of  the  social  group,  and  made  a  special  effort 
to  suppress  the  individual  by  every  agency  possible. 
Education  was  never  regarded  as  a  universal  right  or  of 
universal  value.  It  did  not  aim,  apparently,  to  make 
the  perfect  man  or  citizen,  but  to  maintain  conditions 
as  they  had  existed  in  the  past. 

Occupational  Content.  —  Thus  it  came  about  that  the 
industrial  classes,  who  were  engaged  in  the  common¬ 
place  task  of  furnishing  means  of  subsistence  for  all  the 
people,  and  to  some  extent  the  warriors,  who  guarded 
the  nation,  received  little  education  beyond  reading, 
writing,  and  apprenticeship  in  the  occupations  they 
were  to  follow.  Similarly,  women  were  allowed  no  edu¬ 
cation  at  all  except  that  which  would  aid  them  in  their 
chief  function, —  keeping  the  home.  While  those  who 
entered  the  sacerdotal  class  did  secure  some  knowledge 
of  the  arts,  sciences,  and  various  learned  professions, 
this  was  to  be  used  merely  for  practical  purposes,  or 
for  convincing  the  masses  of  the  influence  of  the  unseen 
in  the  providing  of  these  immediate  needs. 

Memory  Method.  —  This  professional  knowledge 
would  seem  to  have  been  largely  traditional  and  was 
insured  against  any  change  by  being  embalmed  in  the 
sacred  books  of  the  various  countries.  The  method  of 
teaching  it  naturally  required  a  memorizing  of  the 


CHARACTER  OF  EARLIEST  CIVILIZATION 


107 


symbols  in  the  text  rather  than  a  realizing  of  the  mean¬ 
ing  of  these  symbols  as  part  of  the  pupil’s  life.  Instruc¬ 
tion  did  not  consist  in  mere  imitation,  with  practically  no 
consciousness,  as  among  primitive  peoples,  although  it 
must  have  come  very  close  to  that  line  in  China  and 
India,  and  it  nowhere  became  genuinely  rational.  No 
effort  was  made  to  give  a  reason  for  the  customs  and 
traditional  knowledge  that  were  taught.  Individuality 
was  ignored,  and  all  were  taught  alike,  irrespective  of 
interests  and  capabilities.  When  individual  instincts 
revolted  at  this  procedure,  corporal  punishment  forced 
them  to  submit. 

Sacerdotal  Organization  of  Schools.  —  Obviously,  with 
this  development  of  education,  the  training  could  no 
longer  be  accomplished  through  imitative  play  or  by 
participation  in  the  activities  of  the  group.  The  family 
and  the  clan  had,  therefore,  to  yield  to  the  school  as  a 
medium.  Both  elementary  and  higher  schools  were 
gradually  instituted.  Education,  however,  seems  to 
have  retained  some  connection  with  the  priesthood,  as, 
from  the  nature  of  the  subject-matter,  higher  educa¬ 
tion,  except  in  China,  was  largely  conducted  at  priestly 
colleges,  and  the  teachers  did  not  become  separated 
from  the  sacerdotal  class. 

Static  Results. — The  effect  of  such  an  organization 
of  society  and  education  was  that  it  rendered  progress 
practically  impossible,  as  all  innovations  were  discour- 


While  the 
method  was 
not  merely 
imitative,  it 
was  memori- 
ter  and  never 
genuinely 
rational. 


Elementary 
and  higher 
schools  were 
instituted, 
but  the  latter 
were  largely 
for  the  priest¬ 
hood. 


Thus  they 
allowed  no 
freedom  to 
the  individ- 


ual,  and  were 
in  bondage 
to  the  past ; 
and  progress 
was  rendered 
practically 
impossible. 


I08  A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

aged.  This  was  seen  not  only  in  the  immobility  of  the 
political,  social,  and  other  external  conditions  of  the 
countries,  but  in  the  products  of  their  inner  life.  Al¬ 
though  their  religion  was  of  a  much  higher  order  than 
the  crude  animism  and  totemism  of  the  savage,  and  its 
more  advanced  speculations  approached  monotheism, 
it  was  bound  down  by  superstition  and  ceremonial.  It 
had  little  effect  upon  their  ethics,  which  were,  for  the 
most  part,  preceptive  and  prudential.  Their  art,  archi¬ 
tecture,  and  handicrafts,  while  sometimes  developed  to 
a  marked  degree,  especially  among  the  Semitic  peoples, 
were  stiff  and  conventional.  Although  they  produced 
considerable  literature,  it  was  stilted,  repetitious,  and 
formulaic.  What  science  there  was  appears  to  have 
been  traditional  and  mixed  with  charms  and  super¬ 
stition. 

So,  while  these  nations  in  the  transitional  stage  had 
largely  overcome  the  primitive  enslavement  to  nature 
and  the  necessities  of  the  present,  they  allowed  no 
freedom  to  the  individual ,  and  were  subservient  to  the 
conventions  of  their  society.  They  were  completely 
in  bondage  to  the  past.  Education  with  them,  as 
with  the  primitive  tribes,  may  well  be  described  as 
non-progressive.  They  appear,  however,  to  represent 
a  definite  step  in  the  evolution  from  nature  to  culture. 
Although  they  had  obtained  some  control  over  nature, 
with  them  the  process  of  evolution  had  not  yet  become 


CHARACTER  OF  EARLIEST  CIVILIZATION  109 

quite  conscious  of  itself,  and  man  had  not  come  to 
strive  for  a  realization  of  what  he  believed  to  be  ideal 
in  this  process.  Later  on,  society  will  be  found  to 
look  to  the  future  rather  than  the  past,  and  to  make 
a  self-conscious  attempt  to  promote  human  develop¬ 
ment  in  accordance  with  its  remote  ideal  progressively 
revealed  to  thinking  men. 


PART  II 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  INDIVIDUALISM  IN 

EDUCATION 

CHAPTER  XI 

ISRAEL  AND  JUD^A  (THE  JEWS) 

The  Hebrews,  or  at  least  that  portion  of  them 
known  as  the  Israelites,  while  classed  among  the 
nations  of  the  Ancient  Orient,  deserve  a  separate 
treatment,  because  their  history  continued  so  much 
longer,  and  the  stage  of  culture  at  which  they  arrived 
was  so  much  higher  in  type. 

Survey  of  Jewish  History  and  Religion.  —  According 
to  the  record,  these  people  first  appeared  in  a  migration 
of  tribes  that  started  from  the  east  side  of  the  Euphrates,1 
under  the  chieftainship  of  one  Abraham,  about  twenty- 
three  hundred  years  before  Christ.  They  eventually 
arrived  in  the  land  of  Canaan,  now  called  Palestine. 
After  some  centuries  of  nomadic  life  in  this  country,  a 
portion  of  the  Hebrews,2  known  as  Israelites,  or  de- 

1  I.e.  ‘Ur  of  the  Chaldees.’  See  Genesis ,  XI,  28  and  31. 

2  Hebrew  probably  meant  ‘  dweller  on  the  other  side.’ 


IIO 


ISRAEL  AND  JUD^A  (THE  JEWS) 


III 


scendants  of  Jacob,  the  reputed  grandson  of  Abraham, 
wandered  with  their  flocks  and  herds  by  successive  migra¬ 
tions  into  the  pasture  lands  of  Goshen,  or  northeastern 
Egypt.  This  was  probably  during  the  reign  of  one 
of  the  later  Hyksos,  or  Shepherd  Kings,  who  were 
possibly  themselves  of  Semitic  origin.1  Within  the 
land  of  the  Pharaohs  they  continued  their  own  pastoral 
pursuits,  clan  institutions,  and  language,  until  there 
arose  a  new  dynasty  and  “a  king  over  Egypt  which 
knew  not  Joseph, ”  who  sought  to  deprive  them  of 
everything  distinctive  of  their  nationality,  and  force 
them  into  a  degrading  serfdom. 

From  this  desperate  situation  they  were  delivered  introduction 
by  the  leader  Moses.  This  hero  introduced  among  of  Jehovah, 
them  the  conception  of  Jahweh ,  or  Jehovah,  as  a 
national  deity  who  would  protect  his  people  if  they 
were  righteous.  Having  inspired  them  with  this  idea, 
he  seized  the  opportunity  during  a  series  of  scourges 
in  Egypt  to  lead  out  some  two  million  of  them  across 
the  Red  Sea  into  the  desert  of  the  Sinaitic  Peninsula. 

This  brought  them  just  south  of  Canaan  and  near  to 
the  other  people  of  Hebraic  origin,  —  the  Edomites, 

Moabites,  and  Ammonites. 

At  first  the  Israelites  were  held  back  by  the  vigorous 

1  The  whole  question  of  Israel’s  abode  in  Egypt  is  one  of  peculiar  diffi¬ 
culty,  and  there  is  a  wide  variety  of  opinion  among  scholars  regarding  it. 

The  racial  relationship  of  the  Hyksos  is  also  very  uncertain. 


1 12 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


The  judges. 


Canaanites  from  proceeding  further,  and  were  obliged 
to  remain  in  the  desert  for  some  forty  years.  During 
this  time  the  national  feeling  was  further  developed; 
and  Moses,  possibly  aided  by  the  priesthood,  exercised 
legislative  and  judicial  functions  on  the  authority  of 
Jehovah.  From  the  decisions  and  advice  obtained 
in  this  way,  traditions  were  rapidly  built  up  and 
transmitted  as  the  Thorah  (‘  Law  ’),  although  probably 
not  committed  to  writing  for  many  centuries.  In  the 
course  of  time  the  older  generation  was  replaced  by 
a  hardier  one  born  in  the  desert,  and  during  a  quarrel 
between  their  kindred  tribes  and  the  Amorites  they 
were  able  to  cross  the  Jordan.  After  many  small  wars 
Canaan  was  conquered  by  the  Israelites  and  partitioned 
among  the  Twelve  Tribes  some  thirteen  or  fourteen 

hundred  years  before  Christ. 

While  dwelling  in  this  land,  for  two  or  three  centuries 
there  was  little  community  of  feeling,  and  dissensions 
were  common.  “  Every  man  did  that  which  was  right 
in  his  own  eyes,”  although  at  times  there  arose  local 
chiefs,  or  ‘judges,’  some  of  whom  attained  to  a  greater 
or  less  degree  of  intertribal  recognition.  Their  internal 
quarrels,  however,  were  finally  pacified  by  their  common 
resistance  to  the  Philistines,  who  had  overwhelmed  the 
Israelites,  and  carried  off  from  the  shrine  at  Shiloh  the 
‘ark,’  or  sacred  symbol  of  Jehovah.  For  this  reason, 
too,  a  war-chief  became  necessary,  and,  through  the 


ISRAEL  AND  JUD^A  (THE  JEWS) 


1 13 


offices  of  the  judge  Samuel  about  1095  b.c.,  a  gigantic  The  kings, 
and  impetuous  Benjamite  named  Saul  was  chosen  king 
and  general.  This  warrior  soon  unified  the  undis¬ 
ciplined  tribes  and  decisively  defeated  their  various 
enemies. 

The  selection  of  a  king  did  not  constitute  the  only 
service  of  Samuel  in  drawing  the  nation  together.  He 
perceived  that  the  religious  and  patriotic  enthusiasm  en¬ 
gendered  by  the  pressure  of  the  Philistines  might  be 
used  for  the  restoration  and  development  of  the  religion 

of  Jehovah.  He  organized  into  regular  ‘  schools’  the  The  proph¬ 
ets. 

‘  prophets/  or  bands  of  fanatical  devotees  of  the  national 
God,  which  in  Israel,  as  among  other  Eastern  peoples, 
were  in  the  habit  of  traveling  through  the  land  in  a  state 
of  emotional  excitement.  At  various  centers  these  re¬ 
ligious  revivalists  were  gathered  together  and  dwelt  in 
crude  huts  of  their  own  erection.  Their  spiritual  insight 
was  systematically  trained  by  a  course  of  religious  and 
lyric  instruction,  and  they  in  turn  diffused  among  the 
common  people  a  knowledge  of  the  essential  truths  of 
the  religion  of  Jehovah.  Thus  during  the  following  five 
centuries  much  was  done  through  these  schools  of  the 
prophets  to  develop  the  national  religion  and  further 
unite  the  nation. 

Saul,  however,  deprived  by  death  of  Samuel’s  guid-  Degeneracy 
ance,  gradually  degenerated,  and  was  succeeded  by  ofthekings’ 
David,  a  Judahite.  This  king  recovered  the  ark,  and, 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


1 14 


and  the 
division  of 
the  kingdom. 


The  exile. 


Foundation 
of  Judaea. 


placing  it  in  Jerusalem,  did  much  toward  securing  per¬ 
manency  of  religious  and  political  conditions.  In  the 
reign  of  David’s  son,  Solomon,  the  long-planned  temple 
was  built,  science  and  literature  were  advanced,  com¬ 
merce  and  wealth  were  largely  increased,  and  much  was 
accomplished  for  the  internal  administration.  The  king 
himself,  however,  succumbed  to  luxury  and  indulgence ; 
and  under  his  weak  son,  Rehoboam,  in  930  b.c.  the  ten 
northern  tribes  revolted,  and  formed  the  kingdom  of 
‘Israel,’  with  Samaria  as  the  capital.  The  two  tribes 
that  remained  loyal  to  the  house  of  David  became 
known  thereafter  as  the  kingdom  of  *  Judah.’ 

This  disruption  eventually  led  to  the  downfall  of  both 
kingdoms.  Israel,  from  its  position,  was  constantly 
under  the  burden  of  warfare,  and  was  finally  overrun  by 
Assyria  in  720  b.c.  Its  inhabitants  were  deported  and 
thus  became  ‘  the  ten  lost  tribes.’  Judah  was  rendered 
more  stable  through  its  isolated  position  and  the  influ¬ 
ence  of  its  prophets,  who  continually  sought  to  keep  the 
kingdom  out  of  the  swirl  of  international  politics.  But 
in  586  b.c.  Jerusalem  was  stormed  by  the  Chaldean 
Babylonians,  the  temple  was  destroyed,  and  the  people 
deported  to  Babylon. 

After  the  Persian  conquest  of  Babylonia,  the  trans¬ 
planted  inhabitants  of  Judah  and  their  descendants 
were  allowed  in  536  b.c.  to  return  to  Jerusalem  and 
rebuild  the  temple.  However,  not  much  was  accom- 


ISRAEL  AND  JUD^A  (THE  JEWS)  1 1 5 

plished  toward  the  culture  of  the  religion  of  Jehovah 
until  the  new  immigration  under  Ezra  and  the  arrival 
of  Nehemiah  as  governor  nearly  a  century  later.  Then 
there  was  founded  a  religious  state  known  as  Judaea,1 
which,  while  under  the  nominal  protectorate  of  Persia, 
left  the  real  power  in  the  hands  of  the  high  priest  and 
his  council  of  priests,  scribes,  and  elders.2 

Through  this  polity  was  produced  a  new  movement 
in  the  religion  of  Jehovah.  Probably  during  the  reign 
of  Josiah,  just  before  the  Babylonian  exile,  the  tra- 
ditional  rulings  known  as  the  Thorah  were  written 
down.  While  the  people  of  Judah  were  in  captivity, 
this  code  was  the  means  of  holding  them  distinct. 
Many  additions,  especially  from  the  teachings  of  the 
prophets,  were  made  during  the  exile ;  and  when  Ezra, 
supported  by  Nehemiah,  promulgated  the  Law  upon 
their  return,  it  must  have  contained  the  main  stock 
of  the  present  Pentateuch.  Many  amendments  were 
afterward  made,  but  from  this  time  it  became  the  magna 
charta  of  Judaism.  With  its  publication  revelation  was 
supposed  to  be  complete.  The  prophets  had  now 
disappeared,  leaving  behind  a  rich  inheritance  of  ex¬ 
alted  utterances,  and  the  scribes  became  the  recognized 
authority  in  matters  of  religion  under  the  name  of 

1  Since  then  these  people  have  been  known  as  Jews  rather  than  Israelites. 

2  The  Sanhedrim ,  which  arose  under  the  Maccabees,  may  have  been 
an  outgrowth  of  this  Council. 


The  scribes 
and  their 
works. 


Later  history. 


Il6  A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Sopherim  (‘  Scripture  scholars  ’).  Before  the  captivity 
their  duties  had  been  mostly  clerical,  but  they  now 
interpreted  and  administered  ‘  the  Law  and  the 
Prophets/  and  added  to  them  by  their  commentaries. 
Their  works  were  finally  collected  and  are  known  as 
the  Talmud}  They  include  the  Mishna  (‘repetition’), 
which  is  the  oral  law  that  had  been  handed  down  as 
distinguished  from  the  Thorah,  and  affords  an  account 
of  various  ceremonies  and  ordinances,  and  the  Gemara 
(‘supplement’),  which  is  composed  of  interpretations 
of  the  Mishna.  These  works  have  for  the  Jews  an 
importance  second  only  to  that  of  the  Scriptures. 

Meanwhile,  Judaea  as  a  state  continued  its  existence 
for  a  few  centuries  longer.  In  323  b.c.,  upon  the  death 
of  Alexander,  who  had  conquered  Persia,  Judaea  for 
nearly  a  century  came  under  the  sovereignty  of  the 
Ptolemies.  Then  for  another  hundred  years  it  writhed 
under  the  rule  of  the  Syrians ;  but,  after  a  struggle  of  a 
quarter  of  a  century,  it  was  able  to  set  up  an  independ¬ 
ent  religious  state  under  the  Maccabees  (142-64  b.c.). 
However,  through  sectarian  quarrels,  Rome  was  en¬ 
abled  to  reduce  Judaea  to  a  dependency,  and,  after 
various  insurrections,  in  70  a.d.  Jerusalem  was  taken 
and  the  temple  again  destroyed.  Since  then,  the  Jews, 

1  There  are  two  Talmuds,  called  the  ‘  Palestinian  ’  and  the  *  Babylo¬ 
nian  ’  respectively,  after  the  place  of  their  compilation.  They  differ  in 
minor  respects  only. 


ISRAEL  AND  JUD^A  (THE  JEWS)  1 17 

deprived  of  political  existence,  have  spent  their  energy- 
on  the  culture  of  their  religious  patrimony.  Although 
scattered  throughout  all  lands  and  nations,  and  univer¬ 
sally  oppressed,  they  have  through  all  these  centuries 
preserved  their  identity  and  strength  by  the  force  of 
their  long  history,  remarkable  traditions,  regard  for 
education,  and  lofty  religious  conceptions. 

Development  of  Israelite  Religion.  —  While  the  Israel¬ 
ites  made  a  great  advance  over  previous  religions,  in  that 
Jehovah  was  from  the  beginning  conceived  to  some 
extent  as  a  god  of  ethical  attributes,  who  preferred 
righteousness  to  sacrifice,  yet  the  real  development  of 
their  religious  ideas  was  of  very  gradual  growth.  As 
already  indicated,  their  religion  was  probably  given  its 
distinctive  form  by  Moses,  and  was  most  effective  during 
the  great  emergency  of  escaping  from  the  Egyptian 
bondage  and  settling  in  Canaan.  The  conception  of 
Jehovah  probably  existed  before  this  time,  but  possibly  as 
of  a  deity  belonging  to  one  or  more  Israelitish  tribes, — 
at  least,  it  was  much  less  developed  than  with  Moses. 
There  is  some  evidence  also  of  the  existence  of  poly¬ 
demonism,  if  not  polytheism,  in  the  pre-Mosaic  religion, 
and  traces  even  of  animism  and  totemism  seem  to  sur¬ 
vive  from  an  earlier  time  in  the  Mosaic  rites  and  wor¬ 
ship  themselves.1  Certainly  neither  religious  reflection 

1  Sacrifice  must  be  regarded  as  a  gift  of  food  to  the  god,  and  a  com¬ 
munion  with  the  deity  by  partaking  of  the  same  flesh  or  being  sprinkled 


Mosaic  and 
pre-Mosaic 
conceptions. 


Henotheism. 


1 1 8  A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

nor  moral  principles  could  have  been  present,  except  in 
embryo,  before  the  time  of  the  exodus ;  and  for  a  long 
time  after  the  introduction  of  the  religion  of  Jehovah, 
custom  was  the  all-prevailing  influence. 

Even  the  religion  of  Moses  should  be  described 
as  a  henotheism  rather  than  a  monotheism,  for 
probably  Jehovah  was  still  regarded  as  one  god 
among  many,  although  the  most  powerful.  He  was 
simply  the  ‘  God  of  Israel/  the  protector  and  de¬ 
liverer  of  his  people,  and  the  only  one  who  could 
claim  their  gratitude,  obedience,  and  worship.  Nor 
did  the  religion  of  the  Israelites  become  an  absolute 
monotheism  for  a  long  time  after  their  settlement  in 
Canaan.  As  Israel  came  to  participate  in  the  agri¬ 
culture  and  viticulture  of  the  Canaanites,  they  saw  no 
inconsistency  in  adopting  also  the  various  Ba’als,1  that 
presided  over  the  several  districts.  In  course  of  time, 
as  the  people  of  Canaan  were  subdued  more  and  more, 
Ba’al  was  gradually  repudiated  by  the  Israelites,  and 
his  property  and  functions  absorbed  by  Jehovah. 
However,  they  appear  to  have  seen  no  reason  why 
the  Canaanites  should  not  worship  him.  For  a  similar 
reason,  the  erection  by  Solomon  of  shrines  in  honor  of 

with  the  same  blood;  and  a  similar  idea  underlies  the  ‘  covenant,’  where  the 
contracting  parties  walked  between  pieces  of  the  animal  laid  opposite  each 
other.  Circumcision,  too,  is  customary  even  at  the  initiatory  ceremonies  of 
savages  as  a  sign  that  the  youth  has  entered  among  the  warriors  of  the  tribe. 

*  These  Ba’als  were  identified  with  Dionysus  by  the  Greeks. 


ISRAEL  AND  JUD^A  (THE  JEWS) 


119 


Ashtoreth,  Milcom,  Chemosh,  and  other  deities,  to 
please  his  foreign  wives,  was  probably  regarded  rather 
as  unpatriotic  than  sacrilegious.  And  even  the  prophet 
Micah,  as  late  as  the  eighth  century,  recognized 
the  existence  of  other  gods,  though  subordinate,  when 
he  said :  “  For  all  people  will  walk  every  one  in  the 
name  of  his  god,  and  we  will  walk  in  the  name  of 
the  Lord  our  God  for  ever  and  ever.”  1 

Moreover,  for  many  centuries  the  Israelites  had  an 
anthropomorphic,  if  not  lower,  conception  of  God. 
Jehovah  was  described  as  of  human  form,  and  his 
presence  was  made  concrete  by  images  and  even 
symbolized  by  the  bulls  of  Jeroboam  at  Bethel  and 
Dan.  Also  mention  was  made  of  the  existence  of 
demigods,  —  ‘  sons  of  gods,’  2  —  who  consorted  with 
mortal  women ;  while  ‘  angels  ’  were  viewed  as  a  sort 
of  intermediate  being  between  God  and  man. 

The  transformation  of  these  narrow  conceptions  and 
the  real  development  of  Israelite  religion  came  about 
largely  through  the  instrumentality  of  the  prophets. 
Although  they  were  laymen,  in  their  fidelity  to  Jehovah 
and  their  zeal,  they  far  outstripped  the  professional 
priesthood.  At  first  they  supported  the  throne, 
although,  as  in  the  case  of  Samuel,  Nathan,  and  Elijah, 


Anthropo¬ 

morphism. 


Loftier  con¬ 
ceptions  of 
the  prophets. 


1  Micah,  IV,  5. 

2  Genesis ,  VI,  4,  and  Job,  I,  6.  These  conceptions  were  probably  im¬ 
portations  from  foreign  sources,  as  Egypt  or  Persia. 


120 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


they  never  hesitated  to  rebuke  the  king  when  they 
felt  that  he  had  sinned.  But  as  the  religious  degen¬ 
eracy,  especially  of  the  northern  kingdom,  grew,  they 
came  to  oppose  the  rulers  openly,  as  well  as  the  beliefs, 
tendencies,  and  customs  of  the  times.  They  did  their 
best  to  awaken  the  consciences  of  the  people  to  nobler 
conceptions  and  loftier  morality;  and  prophesied  the 
downfall  of  the  kingdoms,  if  the  Israelites  did  not  obey 
the  laws  of  Jehovah  in  deed  and  spirit,  and  reject 
Ba’alism.  Elijah  especially  fought  most  strenuously 
the  coordination  or  identification1  of  Jehovah  with 
Ba’al.  In  the  ridicule  he  heaped  upon  the  prophets 
of  Ba’al,2  he  went  far  beyond  the  henotheistic  position 
and  completely  denied  the  existence  of  other  gods  than 
Jehovah.  Other  prophets  also  declared  that  “Jehovah 
is  the  only  true  God,  and  beside  him  there  is  none  ;  ” 
and  while  they  described  him  nearly  always  as  working 
for  his  own  people,  they  taught  that  all  nations  would 
eventually  be  brought  within  his  plan  of  salvation  for 
the  world. 

Again,  while  the  prophets  resorted  occasionally  to 
anthropomorphic  descriptions,  there  is  in  them  no  trace 
of  the  original  naive  belief  in  a  human  form,  and  they 

1  The  reaction  from  this  inconsistent  syncretism  produced  such  extreme 
individuals  as  the  Nazarites,  who  insisted  upon  abstinence  from  the  use 
of  wine,  as  savoring  of  the  Ba’al  cult,  and  the  Rechabites,  who  went  so 
far  as  to  protest  against  all  civilization  with  agriculture  in  it,  and  even 
tried  to  revive  the  nomadic  life  of  the  desert.  2  I  Kings ,  XVIII,  17-40. 


ISRAEL  AND  JUDAEA  (THE  JEWS) 


121 


waged  a  ceaseless  warfare  against  the  use  of  images. 
These  they  felt  to  be  unworthy  of  his  universality  and 
his  superiority  to  restriction  in  space  or  time.  Through 
them  he  was  invested  with  all  the  qualities  of  morality 
and  holiness. 

However,  with  the  return  from  the  Babylonian  cap¬ 
tivity  and  the  growing  prominence  of  the  scribes,  there 
was  a  descent  from  the  lofty  teachings  of  the  prophets. 
As  the  Mishna  and  the  Gemara  expanded,  the  religious 
life  of  the  Judaeans  more  and  more  became  one  of  for¬ 
mal  observance.  Ceremonial,  legal  dicta,  and  other 
prescriptions  rapidly  multiplied  and  flourished.  For¬ 
mal  obedience  to  the  Law  remained,  but  it  took  on  more 
of  the  character  of  a  business  contract  with  the  Deity, 
in  which  each  party  was  obligated  to  fill  his  own  part, 
although  even  in  this  a  moralizing  tendency  was  ap¬ 
parent. 

Thus,  beginning  with  Moses,  the  religion  of  Jehovah 
grew  and  expanded.  Through  all  its  stages,  —  the 
formulation  of  priestly  tradition,  the  spiritual  develop¬ 
ment  of  the  prophets,  and  the  formal  interpretations 
of  the  scribes,  it  emphasized  the  moral  law,  and  gener¬ 
ally  regarded  God  as  an  Infinite  Being  in  personal  touch 
with  man.1  The  people  of  Israel  were  probably  not 

1  The  later  Judaism  hardly  regarded  God  as  in  contact  with  man.  In 
fact,  God  was  highly  transcendent,  so  that  intermediaries  were  con¬ 
sidered  necessary  between  God  and  the  world.  Hence  arose  their 


Formalism 
of  the  scribes. 


Summary  of 

religious 

development. 


122 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Religious 
and  moral 
aim. 


the  first  to  grasp  the  henotheistic  conception,  as  can  be 
seen  from  the  history  of  other  Oriental  peoples,  and 
possibly  the  Hindus  and  Zoroastrians  at  least  may  be 
said  to  have  anticipated  them  in  attributing  the  char¬ 
acteristic  of  universality  to  their  deity ;  but  they  cer¬ 
tainly  were  the  earliest  people  to  develop  monotheism, 
and  to  grasp  the  conception  of  God  as  a  self-existent, 
moral  personality  in  vital  relations  with  his  people. 

Educational  Ideals.  —  Thus  it  can  be  seen  that  through¬ 
out  all  periods  of  their  history  the  Jews  had  ingrained 
in  them  the  conception  of  God  as  the  preserver  and  law¬ 
giver  of  his  people.  This  was  accompanied  by  the 
belief  that  to  act  in  harmony  with  the  Divine  will 
was  the  highest  duty  of  man.  All  law,  civil  and 
ecclesiastical,  was,  in  consequence,  regarded  simply 
as  the  expression  of  the  will  of  Jehovah,  and  no  dis¬ 
tinction  was  ordinarily  made  between  patriotism  and 
religion. 

The  chief  aim  of  education,  therefore,  was  religious 
and  moral .  As  early  as  Deuteronomy  the  command 
appears:  “Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy  God  with  all 
thine  heart,  and  with  all  thy  soul,  and  with  all  thy 
might.  And  these  words  which  I  command  thee  this 
day  shall  be  in  thine  heart,  and  thou  shalt  teach  them 

*  angelology,’  borrowed  from  Persian  and  other  sources,  and  the  apothe¬ 
osis  of  the  Thorah  and  of  the  Mentra  (‘  word  ’)  of  Jehovah.  See  Schiirer, 
History  of  the  Jewish  People  in  the  Time  of Jesus  Christ. 


ISRAEL  AND  JUDAEA  (THE  JEWS) 


123 


diligently  unto  thy  children.”  1  The  building  of  charac¬ 
ter  was  looked  upon  as  the  one  goal  to  be  achieved,  and 
but  little  stress  was  placed  upon  knowledge  of  any  sort 
except  as  it  achieved  this  end.  So  from  the  first  the 
pupils  were  trained  preeminently  in  that  *  fear  of  the 
Lord,’  which  ‘  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom  ’ ; 2  and,  as 
traditions  developed,  this  came  to  include  an  acquaint¬ 
ance  with  ritual  and  ceremonial  duties.  In  keeping  with 
their  moral  aim,  the  Jews  strove  also  to  make  their 
training  practical.  “  Not  learning,  but  doing,  is  the 
chief  thing,”  declares  the  Mishna,3  and  their  education 
always  contemplated  a  preparation  for  the  concrete 
duties  of  life  in  matters  of  trade  and  occupation,  as 
well  as  of  religion  and  ceremonies. 

Pre-exilic  Education.  —  Until  after  their  exile  there 
was  no  public  means  of  education  among  the  Jews. 
Children  were  taught  in  the  family  by  their  parents. 
During  their  earliest  childhood  both  sexes  were  under 
the  mother’s  care ;  but  later,  boys  accompanied  their 
fathers  to  the  field  or  workshop,  while  the  girls  remained 
at  home  with  their  mothers.  Thus,  through  the  family, 
was  given  that  religious  and  ethical  instruction  which 
is  especially  characteristic  of  the  Jews.  The  boys  and 
girls  alike  learned  the  history  of  their  own  people  and 
of  God’s  dealings  with  them,  the  different  codes  of  the 

1  Deuteronomy,  VI,  5-7.  2  Proverbs ,  IX,  10.  See  also  I,  7. 

3  Aboth,  I,  17. 


Family  as 
the  means. 


124 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Schools  of 
the  prophets. 


Pentateuch,  the  beautiful  lyrics  of  the  Psalms,  and  the 
wisdom  of  the  Proverbs.  Also  at  the  appropriate  time 
their  parents  explained  the  significance  of  their  re¬ 
ligious  observances,  such  as  the  festival  of  the  Pass- 
over,  .commemorative  of  their  escape  from  Egypt,  and 
that  of  the  Pentecost,  which  celebrated  the  reception  of 
the  decalogue  on  Mount  Sinai.  At  the  same  time  with 
this  ethical  and  social  training,  and  as  part  of  it,  every 
boy  was  fitted  for  the  practice  of  a  trade  through  his 
father ;  and  the  girls  were  taught  such  arts  as  cooking, 
weaving,  and  clothes-making,  in  the  home  by  their 
mothers. 

Facilities  for  formal  schooling  practically  did  not 
exist  before  the  Babylonian  captivity.  Reading  and 
writing  were  at  first  not  taught  at  all,  but  some  knowl¬ 
edge  of  these  rudiments  may  have  been  given  in  the 
larger  cities  after  the  founding  of  the  kingdom.  Also, 
when  the  Israelites  were  well  settled  in  Canaan,  pos¬ 
sibly  tutors  were  sometimes  employed  by  the  wealthy, 
just  as  Solomon  was  instructed  by  the  prophet  Nathan ; 
but,  as  a  rule,  such  elementary  education  as  they  had 
was  carried  on  by  the  parents. 

Higher  education  was  scarcely  known  until  after  the 
exile.  Even  the  priesthood  and  scribes  were  limited  to 
a  certain  knowledge  of  law,  and  of  historical  and  judicial 
literature.  In  the  schools  of  the  prophets,  besides 
theological  interpretation  and  the  law,  they  appar- 


ISRAEL  AND  JUDAEA  (THE  JEWS) 


125 


ently  learned  only  the  arts  of  sacred  music  and  poetry, 
whereby  they  were  to  be  stimulated  to  greater  ecstasy, 
and  were  instructed  in  the  compilation  of  maxims,  nar¬ 
ratives,  and  annals.  It  has  been  claimed  that  they 
were  taught  some  mathematics  and  astronomy,  to  mark 
off  the  religious  festivals,  but  this  is  very  doubtful. 

Post-exilic  Education.  —  During  their  captivity  the 
Jews  had  an  opportunity  to  see  schools  for  higher 
training,  which  were  well  developed  in  Babylon.  These 
were,  however,  intended  only  for  the  priesthood  and 
aristocracy ;  but  the  extension  of  such  opportunities  to 
all  classes,  which  was  effected  upon  their  return,  origi¬ 
nated  distinctly  with  the  Jews.  But  even  with  them, 
while  there  was  theoretically  no  distinction  in  classes, 
the  degree  of  culture  customarily  obtained  by  the  priest, 
prophet,  scribe,  and  lay  aristocracy  was  greater  than 
that  of  the  ordinary  man. 

This  provision  for  a  higher  education  was  probably 
made  shortly  after  the  return  of  Ezra  by  the  rebuild¬ 
ing  of  the  Temple  and  the  foundation  of  synagogues. 
These  latter  institutions  were  originally  not  places  of 
worship,  but  of  religious  instruction.  In  order  that  the 
Thorah,  which  had  now  been  promulgated  and  accepted 
by  the  people,  should  be  generally  studied  and  read, 
systematic  exposition  and  instruction  by  such  qualified 
teachers  as  the  scribes  were  necessary.  After  the  third 
century  b.c.,  the  scribes  gave  this  instruction  within  the 


Higher 

schools. 


126 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Content  of 
the  higher 
course. 


Elementary 

schools. 


porticoes  of  the  Temple  also,  and  sometimes  in  their 
own  homes  or  those  of  wealthy  patrons.  A  little  later, 
when  elementary  schools  had  also  been  established  at 
the  synagogues,  this  college  of  the  scribes  came  to  be 
known  as  Beth  hcLwi-Midvcish  House  of  Instruc¬ 
tion’);  and  in  Jerusalem  every  scribe  of  note  had  a 
following  of  his  own. 

The  teaching  at  these  colleges  was  intended  for 
those  who  wished  to  make  a  deeper  study  of  the  Law, 
and  was  advanced  in  character.  It  was  given  the  youth 
after  the  reading,  writing,  and  other  elementary  edu¬ 
cation  had  been  furnished  at  home.  It  consisted,  if  we 
may  judge  from  the  Proverbs,  of  instruction  in  such 
virtues  as  prudence,  temperance,  chastity,  truthfulness, 
charity,  and  diligence,  and  in  disputations  concerning  the 
interpretation  of  the  Law,  the  ritual,  and  other  prescrip¬ 
tions.  Possibly  it  was  influenced  also  by  the  educational 
ideals  of  the  times,  especially  of  the  Greek  schools;  and 
afforded  a  training  in  mathematics,  astronomy,  geography, 
and  such  other  sciences  as  were  known,  and  in  foreign 
languages,  especially  Greek,  which,  after  Hebrew,  stood 
highest  of  all  literature  in  the  estimation  of  the  Jews. 

In  the  second  century  before  Christ  the  public  ele¬ 
mentary  school  began  to  grow  up,  and  in  the  end 
became  the  most  prominent  feature  of  the  Jewish 
education.  After  the  spread  of  Greek  ideas,  such  an 
institution  was  naturally  started  in  Jerusalem  as  pre- 


ISRAEL  AND  JUD^A  (THE  JEWS) 


127 


paratory  to  the  higher  education  of  the  scribes.  This 
school,  however,  was  probably  also  taught  by  scribes, 
and  was  in  close  connection  with  the  synagogue,  which 
had  now  been  established  even  in  every  village.  It  was 
generally  held  in  a  room  of  the  synagogue,  or  in  the 
house  of  the  scribe  who  was  teaching  it.  The  famous 
scribe,  Simon  be?i  Shetach  (‘  Simon,  son  of  Shetach  ’), 
had  attendance  at  these  schools  made  compulsory 
upon  all  children  in  Jerusalem  as  early  as  75  b.c.  ; 
and,  in  64  a.d.,  the  requirement  was  extended  by 
Josne  ben  Gemala  (‘Joshua,  son  of  Gamaliel ’)  to  every 
province  and  town.  That  the  training  might  be  effec¬ 
tive,  Joshua  also  required  that,  after  the  number  of 
pupils  in  a  school  had  passed  beyond  twenty-five,  the 
teacher  must  be  given  an  assistant;  and  when  it  ex¬ 
ceeded  forty,  two  teachers  must  be  employed.  Rich 
and  poor  alike  might  attend  these  schools  without  a 
fee,  but  the  wealthy  probably  paid  a  special  school 
tax.  After  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  these  elementary 
schools,  now  known  as  ‘  rabbinical  ’  1  schools,  became  of 
the  utmost  importance,  as  they  were  the  great  means  of 
preserving  the  faith  of  the  Jews,  wherever  they  wan¬ 
dered  in  their  dispersion.  A  well-known  maxim  of 
these  people  was  :  “A  town  without  schools  and  school 
children  should  be  destroyed.” 

1  About  the  time  of  Christ  the  scribes  came  to  be  called  Rabbi  (‘  mas¬ 
ter’),  and  soon  displaced  the  priests  altogether. 


Held  in 
connection 
with  the 
synagogue. 


Made  com 
pulsory  in 
all  towns. 


128 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Internal 

organization. 


Content  of 
the  elemen¬ 
tary  course. 


In  the  first  elementary  schools  the  children  stood 
or  sat  upon  the  ground  and  faced  the  teacher,  who 
was  seated  a  little  above  them,  also  upon  the  ground. 
Later  on,  benches,  and  even  stools  and  cushions,  were 
introduced.  The  pupils  sat  in  front  of  the  teacher,  in 
order  that,  in  keeping  with  the  words  of  Isaiah,1  they 
might  watch  his  face  as  he  spoke.  The  school  hours 
lasted  all  day  with  the  exception  of  a  short  recess  at 
noon,  although  possibly  games  were  interspersed  or 
the  monotony  was  varied  by  the  recitation  of  parables 
and  legends  from  the  Mishna.  School  was  held  every 
day,  except  on  the  Sabbath  and  on  feast  days. 

When  the  children  came  to  school  at  six  years  of 
age,  they  had  already  learned  from  their  parents 
select  Proverbs  and  verses  from  the  Psalms,  and  had 
been  taught  the  significance  of  the  various  religious 
ceremonies.  Between  six  and  ten  they  were  taught 
reading  and  writing,  mostly  from  the  Pentateuch  as  text, 
and  a  little  arithmetic.  Especial  attention  was  given 
to  correct  pronunciation  and  due  reverence  in  reading. 
Then,  until  they  were  fifteen,  the  teacher  explained  the 
Mishna  or  oral  law  to  them ;  and  if  their  studies  were 
continued  beyond  this  in  a  synagogue,  they  consisted, 
as  already  seen,  in  a  discussion  and  criticism  of  the 
Gemara,  and  embraced  all  the  subjects  necessary  to 
throw  light  upon  the  interpretations.  Besides  these 

1  Isaiah ,  XXX,  20. 


ISRAEL  AND  JUD^A  (THE  JEWS) 


129 


religious  and  literary  studies,  all  pupils,  rich  or  poor, 
were  obliged  to  learn  some  handicraft.  “  As  it  is  your 
duty  to  teach  your  son  the  Law,  teach  him  a  trade,” 
reads  the  old  maxim.  This  was  partly  for  the  sake  of 
breadth,  but  it  was  largely  intended  as  a  recreation 
and  rest. 

Girls  must  have  been  trained  as  well  as  boys,  for  Education 
it  is  well  known  that  the  mothers  of  Judaea  have  ofgirls* 
always  been  of  great  importance  in  educating  the 
family.  Probably  the  training  was  more  emotional 
than  intellectual, —  ‘to  fear  God  and  keep  his  com¬ 
mandments.’  Although  girls  were  taught  to  read, 
the  deeper  study  of  the  Thorah  was  not  encouraged, 
and  the  domestic  arts,  dancing,  and  music  largely 
took  the  place  of  science. 

Educational  Method.  —  The  method  of  learning  in 
the  Jewish  elementary  schools  was  not  unlike  that  of 
other  Oriental  peoples.  Frequent  repetition  was  re¬ 
quired  for  the  purpose  of  committing  a  text  and 
obtaining  a  distinct  pronunciation,  and  the  loud  tone 
in  which  this  was  done  suggests  the  memorizing  of 
the  Chinese  and  Hindus.  The  Jews,  however,  had 
learned  to  make  a  practical  appeal  to  various  memories 
through  the  different  senses, — to  the  visual  memory 
by  reading,  the  motor  by  pronouncing  and  writing,  the 
auditory  by  hearing,  and  the  musical  by  singing,  the 
portions  to  be  committed.  It  was  realized  that  much 

K 


130 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Appeal  to 
memory 
assisted  by 
mnemonics. 


Pedagogical 

wisdom. 


care  should  be  exercised  in  the  beginning,  as  what  is 
learned  then  remains  in  the  mind  ‘  like  ink  on  fresh 
paper/  Also  many  mnemonic  helps  were  at  all  times 
used  to  impress  the  memory.  Catchwords,  symbols, 
numerical  groupings,  and  other  devices  were  invented. 
The  most  ingenious  of  these  was  probably  that  of 
the  ‘Athbash/  by  which  the  initial  words  of  lines  or 
verses  in  a  passage  were  so  arranged  with  consecutive 
letters  of  the  alphabet  as  to  be  easily  recalled.1 

The  Jews  also  had  sufficient  practical  knowledge 
of  psychology  to  realize  that  different  types  of  mind 
must  be  approached  by  different  methods.  The  Tal¬ 
mud  recognizes  four  classes  of  pupils,  the  ‘  sponge, 
who  absorbs  everything ;  the  ‘  funnel/  who  retains 
nothing  ;  the  ‘ sieve/  who  catches  the  illustrations, 
but  lets  the  main  argument  slip  by;  and  the  ‘winnow/ 
who  fans  away  the  illustrations,  but  holds  the  more 
solid  portion.  Much  other  good  pedagogical  advice 
can  be  found  in  their  sacred  literature,  although,  with 
the  memoriter  method  in  vogue,  it  may  be  questioned 
whether  some  of  these  recommendations  were  not 
rather  ideal  than  realized  in  practice.  For  example, 
Rabbi  Akiba’s  advice  that  “the  teacher  should  strive 
to  make  the  lesson  agreeable  by  clear  reason  ”  is  hardly 
compatible  with  the  system  of  literal  memorizing. 
However,  the  statements  of  the  Talmud  that,  in  pre- 

1  The  whole  of  Lamentations  was  constructed  after  this  plan. 


ISRAEL  AND  JUDAEA  (THE  JEWS) 


131 


senting  a  lesson,  the  teacher  should  be  careful  not  to 
digress  and  so  confuse  the  pupil,  that  he  should  not 
assign  too  much  at  one  time,  and  that  pauses  should 
be  periodically  given  that  the  pupil  might  have  time 
to  rest  his  mind  and  digest  the  matter,  seem  to  be 
sensible  suggestions  which  could  very  well  have  been 
applied.  Also  the  use  of  various  rites  as  object  lessons 1  | 
to  arouse  inquiry  leading  up  to  an  explanation  is 
known  to  have  been  very  successful  in  religious 
instruction ;  and  the  general  advice  to  the  teacher  to 
pique  the  curiosity  of  the  pupil  by  asking  odd  ques¬ 
tions  may  also  have  produced  good  educational  results. 

Writing  was  taught  by  following  the  copy  on  a  wax  Methods  in 

,  writing  and 

tablet  with  a  stylus,  and  when  the  pupil  was  more  3-d-  higher  edu- 
vanced,  on  papyrus  or  parchment  with  a  pen.  The  cai 
higher  education  was  nominally  conducted  in  the 
form  of  a  disputation,  but  was,  nevertheless,  rather 
dogmatic  in  character,  and  the  final  dictum  of  the 
teacher  was  literally  memorized.  Some  of  the  inter¬ 
pretations  must  have  been  very  artificial.  Every  line  of 
the  sacred  literature  was  given  a  microscopic  examination 
by  the  scribes,  and  frequently  a  very  far-fetched  mean¬ 


ing2  was  read  into  it. 

All  teachers  were  held  in  high  esteem,  as  they  were  Esteem  for 

teachers. 

the  interpreters  of  truth  and  morals,  and  were  largely 


1  See  Exodus ,  XII,  24-28;  XIII,  5-10  and  14-16;  Joshua, ,  IV,  6-8. 

2  See  Farrar,  History  of  Interpretation ,  Lecture  II. 


132 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Their  quali¬ 
fications. 


Rigorous 

discipline. 


looked  upon  as  the  mouthpieces  of  Jehovah.  Disrespect 
toward  them  was  treated  as  irreverence  and  severely 
punished.  The  Talmud  says:  “You  should  revere  the 
teacher  even  more  than  your  father.  The  latter  only 
brought  you  into  this  world;  the  former  indicates  the 
way  into  the  next.”  On  the  other  hand,  much  was 
required  of  them.  For  the  sake  of  morality  a  teacher 
had  to  be  married,  and  he  was  expected  to  be  able, 
experienced,  and  not  too  young.  “  Instruction  by  a 
young  teacher,”  declares  the  Talmud,  “  is  like  sour 
grapes  and  new  wine ;  while  by  an  old  teacher,  it  is 
like  ripe  grapes  and  sweet  wine.”  Many  bits  of  advice 

are  also  given  the  teacher  concerning  his  education, 

*  • 

piety,  self-control,  and  veracity. 

Although  the  teachers  usually  combined  their  profes¬ 
sion  with  the  practice  of  some  trade,  probably  they 
were  often  compensated,  except  in  the  higher  subjects. 
No  definite  fee  was  paid,  but  probably  presents,  espe¬ 
cially  from  the  wealthier  pupils,  were  given  them. 

The  discipline  of  the  Jewish  schools  must,  from 
the  nature  of  the  subject-matter  and  the  methods  of 
teaching,  have  been  rigorous.  Corporal  punishment 
is  constantly  advised  in  the  Proverbs,1  although  wise 
reproof  is  recognized  as  better  on  some  occasions.2 
After  the  pupils  were  old  enough  to  make  an  appeal  to 


1  Proverbs,  XIII,  24;  XIX,  18;  XXIII,  13-14;  etc. 

2  Ibid.,  XVII,  10. 


ISRAEL  AND  JUD^A  (THE  JEWS) 


133 


their  honor  effective  and  have  their  pride  hurt  by  a 
whipping,  the  form  of  punishment  was  not  so  severe. 
Where  corporal  punishment  was  used  at  all  with  older 
boys,  it  was  applied  not  with  the  rod,  but  with  the  thong 
of  a  sandal.  In  Talmudic  times,  especially  after  the 
advent  of  Christ,  discipline  became  much  milder,  but 
chastisement  was  still  recognized.  A  new  type  of  bor¬ 
rowed  interest  was  also  added  in  the  shape  of  various 
rewards,  such  as  sweetmeats  and  dainties,  which  were 
used  as  a  stimulus  to  good  conduct. 

Effect  of  Jewish  Education  on  Progress. — Thus  the 
education  of  the  Jews  was  the  typical  religious  and 
moral  training  of  antiquity,  and  through  it  they  became 
the  religious  people  par  excellence.  As  soon  as  he  was 
old  enough  to  understand,  even  before  his  formal  train¬ 
ing  in  the  schoolroom,  every  Jew  had  ingrained  in 
him  the  idea  of  Jehovah  as  a  God  of  moral  attributes, 
who  is  in  touch  with  man  and  requires  of  him  righteous 
conduct  as  the  ground  of  approval.  Human  person¬ 
ality  he  learned  to  regard  as  a  reflection  of  the  Divine. 
Such  conceptions  of  God,  man,  righteousness,  and  duty 
are  easily  seen  to  be  far  nobler  than  any  that  had 
previously  been  formulated  among  the  other  peoples  of 
the  Orient.  Through  them  a  new  factor,  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  moral  personality,  was  introduced  into  education. 

Even  the  extensive  ceremonial  and  overelaboration 
of  the  Law  introduced  through  the  scribes  could  not 


Religious 
and  moral, 


despite  the 
ceremonial. 


134 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Literature 
limited  to  re 
ligion, 


altogether  destroy  the  spirit  underlying  the  formalism. 
While  the  Law  has  always  been  obeyed  in  all  respects 
as  an  absolute  authority,  and  so  has  become  an  external 
sanction  rather  than  an  appeal  to  reason  and  the  inner 
light,  it  has  been  a  moral  law,  filled  with  high  principles, 
and  could  not  altogether  fail  as  a  stimulus  to  moral 
action  for  any,  while  to  a  few  moral  geniuses  in  every 
generation  it  has  been  the  inspiration  of  loftiest  motives. 

It  is  this  ideal  and  content  alone  which  distin¬ 
guishes  the  education  of  the  Jews  from  that  of  all  other 
Oriental  nations.  In  the  organization  of  education,  they 
do  not  compare  favorably  with  China  or  India.  For  a 
thousand  years  they  had  no  such  institution  as  a  school, 
and  it  was  not  until  a  few  centuries  before  their  extinc¬ 
tion  as  a  nation  that  they  founded  any  real  public 
schools.  Elementary  education  did  eventually  become 
universal  among  them,  but  that  was  only  six  years  prior 
to  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  Their  methods,  while  apply¬ 
ing  some  very  clever  pedagogical  devices,  were  almost 
as  largely  memoriter  and  imitative  as  those  of  barbarian 
peoples,  and  the  discipline  accompanying  them  was  in¬ 
clined  to  be  severe  until  late  in  their  educational  history. 

The  objective  products  of  this  type  of  education  are 
illustrative  of  its  merits  and  defects.  The  literature 
was  naturally  limited  to  an  expression  of  the  Jewish 
idea  of  God’s  dealings  with  the  world,  and  the  devotion 
that  should  go  out  to  him  from  the  pious  soul.  Art 


ISRAEL  AND  JUD^A  (THE  JEWS)  .  135 


and  science  were  almost  entirely  unknown,  except  as  and  art  and 

science 

they  threw  light  on  some  religious  festival  or  custom,  almost  un- 
On  the  other  hand,  the  effect  of  their  religious  and  known’ 
educational  ideals  has  always  been  seen  in  the  beauti¬ 
ful  family  life  and  other  social  relations  of  the  Jews,  but  their 

J  family  life 

Women  were  never  held  in  degradation  among  them,  was  beautiful, 
as  often  among  the  other  Oriental  peoples,  but  were 
generally  shown  esteem ;  children  were  treated  with 
kindness  and  thoughtful  care;  while  reverence  toward 
father  and  mother  was  one  of  the  virtues  first  taught  to 
the  Jewish  child. 

Thus  through  their  high  concepts  of  God  and  of  Their  edu- 

cation  has 

human  obligations,  the  Jews  have  been  held  together  preserved 
through  centuries  of  trials  and  persecutions,  and  have 
found  their  religion  and  education  a  comfort  and  a  con¬ 
solation  in  the  midst  of  them  all.  No  other  Oriental 
nation  of  their  day  has  remained,  but  the  Jew  with 
his  moral  discipline  is  with  us  yet.  Had  their  ethical 
ideals  been  kept  clear  of  excessive  ceremonial,  formal¬ 
ism,  and  narrowness  of  view,  and  developed  as  in  the 
days  of  the  prophets,  they  might  indeed  have  become 
*  the  light  of  the  world.’  As  it  is,  they  gave  birth 
to  the  great  religion  which  was  needed  to  emancipate 
them  from  the  bondage  of  form  and  restricted  vision,1 

l  A  most  remarkable  attempt  to  give  the  Jewish  religion  this  uni¬ 
versality  was  made  by  Philo  the  Jew  in  the  first  years  of  the  Christian  era. 

This  seems  also  to  be  the  aim  of  the  advanced  wing  of  Judaism  to-day. 


136 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


and  which  has  made  its  resistless  way  to  all  nations. 
This  result,  however,  was  not  accomplished  until  con¬ 
tact  with  the  Graeco-Roman  civilization  had  enlarged 
the  horizon  of  philosophy  and  religion. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 
I.  Sources 

Josephus,  Old  Testament,  Talmud. 


II.  Authorities 

Cornill,  H.  H.  History  of  the  People  of  Israel. 

Gelder,  H.  Die  Volksschule  des  Juifs . 

Gratz,  H.  H.  History  of  the  Jews. 

Hastings,  J.  A  Dictionary  of  the  Bible.  Articles  on  Education, 
History  of  the  Israelites,  and  Religion  of  the  Israelites. 
Hosmer,  J.  K.  The  Jews ,  Ancient ,  Medieval,  arid  Modern. 

Kent,  C.  F.  A  History  of  the  Hebrew  People. 

Kittel,  R.  A  History  of  the  Hebrews. 

Kohler,  Deutsch,  and  Jacobs.  Jewish  Encyclopedia.  Article  on 
Education. 

Laurie,  S.  S.  Pre-Christian  Education.  The  Semitic  Races,  B. 
McCurdy,  J.  F.  History ,  Prophecy ,  and  the  Monunients. 

Marcus,  S.  Die  Padagogik  des  Israelitischen  Volkes. 

Marcus,  S.  Zur  Schul-Padagogik  des  Talmud. 

Marti,  K.  Religion  of  the  Old  Testament. 

Montefiore,  C.  G.  The  Origin  and  Growth  of  Religion  as  Illus¬ 
trated  by  the  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews. 

Peters,  M.  C.  Jtistice  to  the  Jew. 

Renan,  E.  History  of  the  People  of  Israel. 


ISRAEL  AND  JUDAEA  (THE  JEWS) 


137 


Robertson,  J.  The  Early  Religion  of  Israel. 

Sayce,  A.  H.  The  Early  History  of  the  Hebrews. 

Schurer,  E.  History  of  the  Jewish  People  in  the  Time  of  Jesus 
Christ. 

Simon,  J.  E education  et  instruction  des  enfants  chez  anciens 
Juifs. 

Smith,  H.  P.  Old  Testament  History. 

Smith,  W.  R.  The  Prophets  of  Ancient  Israel. 

Spiers,  B.  The  School  System  of  the  Talmud. 

Strassburger,  B.  Geschichte  der  Erziehung  und  des  Unterrichts 
bei  den  Israeliten. 

Wellhausen,  J.  Prolegomena  zur  Geschichte  Israels. 


CHAPTER  XII 

SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS) 

Of  all  people  in  ancient  times,  or,  as  some  believe,  in 
all  history,  the  Greeks  have  had  the  greatest  influence 
upon  civilization.  Certain  it  is  that  they  not  only  gave 
a  wonderful  impetus  to  educational  theory  and  practice 
in  their  own  time,  but  ever  since  then  the  world  has  had 
constant  recourse  to  Greek  thought  for  inspiration  and 
counsel.  In  some  respects  their  development  of  indi¬ 
viduality  was  superior  even  to  that  of  the  Jews,  and  in 
any  account  of  educational  history  they  are  worthy  of 
extended  notice. 

Physical  and  Social  Factors  in  the  Progress  of  the 
Greeks.  —  Both  the  natural  and  the  spiritual  environ¬ 
ment  of  Greece  favored  the  development  of  lofty  and 
original  ideals.  The  mild  and  even  climate  tended 
toward  happiness  and  equanimity,  and  the  bracing  air 
was  stimulating  to  thought.  The  coast  line  was  broken 
by  many  gulfs  and  bays,  and  its  almost  unlimited  har¬ 
borage  proved  most  hospitable  to  commerce.  Happily, 
this  was  especially  true  of  the  eastern  coast,  so  that 
Phoenicia  and  other  advanced  countries  were  enabled 
to  bring  in  with  the  wares  of  the  Orient  its  arts  and 

138 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS) 


139 


civilization.  Thus  every  physiographic  and  social  fea¬ 
ture  combined  to  make  old  Greece  broad-minded  and 
eager  to  adopt  from  foreign  countries  such  ideas  as 
would  improve  her  society  and  laws. 

Outline  of  Greek  History. — But  let  us  see  what  is 
meant  by  ‘ancient  Greece.’  We  find  that  old  Greece, — 
or  Hellas,  to  use  her  proper  name,  was  not  a  single 
nation,  but  was  made  up  of  an  aggregation  of  states  on 
the  southeast  peninsula  of  Europe  and  on  those  adjacent 
islands  to  which  the  population  had  overflowed.  The 
various  states  of  Hellas,  largely  as  a  result  of  topog¬ 
raphy,  were  never  really  unified  into  a  confederacy, 
except  in  small  groups  and  for  short  periods  of  time.1 
The  mountain  ranges  with  which  the  entire  peninsula 
is  covered,  or  the  Mediterranean  itself,  isolated  the  dif¬ 
ferent  centers  from  each  other,  and,  by  making  connec¬ 
tion  between  them  difficult,  prevented  the  rise  of  any 
great  likeness  of  thought  or  sentiment.  The  states,  in 
consequence,  varied  considerably  in  character,  govern¬ 
ment,  social  conditions,  and  even  in  the  dialect  spoken. 
Community  of  interest  appeared  only  when  they  banded 
together  to  repel  a  common  foe,  such  as  the  Persians, 
or  gathered  upon  stated  occasions  at  the  great  national 
games,  such  as  the  Olympic,  Isthmian,  and  Nemean. 

1  Some  attempt  at  a  complete  confederation  was  made  toward  the  end 
of  Greek  history  in  the  formation  of  the  Aitolian  and  Achaean  leagues, 
but  these  were  unsuccessful  and  short-lived. 


Effect  of  the 
isolation  of 
the  Greek 
states. 


140 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Sparta  and 
Athens. 


Prehistoric 

period. 


The  most  important  and  typical  states  were  Sparta 
and  Athens,  and,  as  they  will  amply  illustrate  the  evo¬ 
lution  of  educational  theory  and  practice  in  Greece, 
attention  will  here  be  largely  confined  to  them.  In  fact, 
the  really  distinctive  contributions  that  Hellas  made  to 
civilization  grew  up  in  Athens  alone  from  about  the 
middle  of  the  fifth  century  onward.  Athens  before 
that  time,  and  Sparta  throughout  her  whole  history, 
were  controlled  by  an  education  that  was  at  best  but 
little  beyond  that  of  the  Orient.  This  type  of  training 
is  of  importance  here  simply  as  it  throws  light  upon 
the  development  of  those  social  products  that  are  typi¬ 
cal  of  the  Greeks,  and  from  which  modern  culture  has 
sprung. 

The  accounts  of  earliest  Greece  are  mythical,  and 
extend  back,  as  nearly  as  can  be  estimated,  to  at  least 
the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century  before  Christ.  This 
prehistoric  period  includes  the  Tribal  Age,  when  the 
Greeks  were  in  the  nomadic  stage ;  the  Mycenean  Age, 
when,  through  contact  with  the  Orient,  they  learned  to 
build  cities  and  practice  agriculture ;  and  lastly,  the 
Epic  Age,  which  seems  to  bring  them  a  little  further 
toward  civilization.  While  not  much  is  known  of 
actual  events  during  the  prehistoric  period,  we  can,  from 
the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  of  Homer,  and  from  excavations 
at  Mycenae,  Argos,  and  Cnossus,  gain  some  knowledge 
of  how  the  Greeks  lived  at  the  time. 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS)  141 

Really  authoritative  records,  however,  can  be  said  to 
date  only  from  the  first  Olympiad,  776  b.c.  During 
historic  times  Sparta  seems  to  have  been  the  first  of 
the  Greek  states  to  become  prominent.  This  was  due 
to  her  military  system  of  education,  which  in  turn  arose 
as  the  result  of  social  conditions.  Somewhere  about 
the  eleventh  century  the  Dorian  tribe,  to  which  Sparta 
belonged,  had  pushed  aside  the  primitive  inhabitants 
from  their  homes  in  the  Peloponnesus,  and  had  taken 
their  place.  Thus  the  citizens  of  Sparta,  while  in  their 
own  land,  dwelt  in  the  midst  of  hostile  people.  In  the 
surrounding  towns  and  country  were  the periceci  (‘dwel¬ 
lers  around  ’),  who  were  free,  but  paid  large  taxes  for  the 
use  of  their  lands,  and  largely  supported  the  Spartans. 
Then  there  were  the  helotes  (‘  captives  ’),  who  had  been 
taken  in  war,  and  were  forced  to  remain  in  serfdom  and 
do  all  the  menial  work  for  the  citizens.  So  it  came  about 
that  there  were  in  all  about  two  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  of  the  subject  people  to  not  more  than  nine 
thousand  Spartans ;  and  the  latter  were  constantly  men¬ 
aced  by  an  uprising  of  the  conquered  tribes,  as  well 
as  by  attacks  from  the  outside.  These  dangers  were 
aggravated  by  the  notorious  slothfulness  in  military 
matters  into  which  they  had  fallen. 

To  guard  against  this,  it  became  necessary  for  the 
entire  body  of  free  Spartans  to  organize  themselves  into 
a  citizen  army,  and  arrange  for  a  system  of  education 


Origin  and 
effect  of  a 
military 
system  in 
Sparta. 


142 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Athenian 

development. 


that  would  produce  a  race  of  warriors.  A  statesman 
named  Lycurgus,  in  whom  they  had  great  confidence, 
was  selected  to  formulate  a  code  of  laws  that  should  be 
binding  on  all  and  would  transmute  the  desired  ends 
into  national  habits.  This  was  probably  as  early  as  the 
middle  of  the  ninth  century,  but  the  scheme  of  educa¬ 
tion  remained  in  vogue  almost  without  change  until  the 
Greek  states  lost  their  independence.  Although  toward 
the  end  the  system  degenerated  somewhat,  during  the 
early  days  it  gave  Sparta  a  decided  advantage,  espe¬ 
cially  as  the  other  states  tended  to  neglect  military 
training;  and  by  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century 
she  had  become  the  leading  state  of  Greece. 

Meanwhile,  in  the  north,  Athens  had  been  greatly  de¬ 
veloping  in  intelligence  and  polity.  The  monarchy  was 
eventually  displaced  by  an  aristocracy  in  753  b.c.  Then 
the  oppression  of  this  type  of  rule  was  gradually  re¬ 
moved  from  the  people  through  the  publication  of  the 
laws  by  Draco  (621  b.c.),  the  freeing  of  the  masses  by 
Solon  (594  b.c.),  and  the  crushing  of  the  nobles  by  Pi- 
sistratus  and  his  sons  (560-510  b.c.),  until  finally  it  was 
possible  for  Clisthenes  (510-508  b.c.)  to  declare  the 
most  thoroughgoing  democracy  in  all  history.  As  a 
result  of  his  reforms,  every  matter  of  importance  was 
settled  in  the  public  assembly  by  vote  of  all  the  citizens; 
public  officers  were  chosen  by  ballot,  or  even  by  lot,  so 
high  was  the  general  intelligence ;  and  the  people  were 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS)  143 

annually  permitted  by  a  secret  vote  known  as  ostracism  1 
to  exile  any  man,  however  aristocratic,  whose  presence 
was  felt  to  be  inimical  to  the  general  welfare. 

Under  such  circumstances,  Athens  came  rapidly  to 
self-consciousness,  and,  feeling  her  superiority  to  Sparta, 
eagerly  sought  occasion  to  prove  it.  The  opportunity 
presented  itself  in  the  outbreak  of  the  Persian  wars  in 
500  b.c.  In  the  course  of  the  three  expeditions  (492, 
490,  and  480-479  b.c.)  that  Persia  made  against  Greece 
and  in  which  the  Persians  were  so  thoroughly  repulsed, 
Athens  displayed  the  greatest  wisdom  and  valor,  and 
stood  preeminent  in  defense  of  the  entire  country. 
Toward  the  close  of  the  contest  with  Persia  (479  b.c.), 
she  became  the  head  of  the  alliance  known  as  the  Con¬ 
federacy  of  Delos ,  which  was  formed  at  this  time  to 
prosecute  the  war.  Gradually  the  allies  of  Athens  were 
reduced  to  subjects;  and,  under  the  influence  of  Peri¬ 
cles,  an  imperial  policy  was  formally  adopted,  and  the 
treasury  removed  from  Delos  to  Athens  in  454  b.c. 

The  culmination  of  Athenian  prosperity  is  seen  in  the 
enlightened  period  called  the  Age  of  Pericles ,  from  the 
leading  statesman  of  the  time.  This  great  leader  felt 
justified  in  expending  the  funds  of  the  Confederacy  of 
Delos  to  beautify  the  city  with  architecture,  sculpture, 
and  painting ;  and  soon  became  known  as  a  patron  of 
art  and  literature.  As  a  result,  these  cultural  features 


Supremacy 
of  Athens. 


The  Peri- 
clean  Age. 


1  From  the  ostrakon  (*  tile  ’)>  upon  which  each  ballot  was  inscribed. 


144 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Peloponne¬ 
sian  War 
and  the  he¬ 
gemony  of 
Sparta. 


came  to  flourish  as  never  before  in  the  world’s  history. 
On  the  Acropolis  and  other  heights  arose  the  most  beau¬ 
tiful  temples,  such  as  the  Parthenon,  the  Erechtheum, 
and  the  Theseum.  These  and  other  structures  were 
adorned  by  the  marvelous  statues  of  Phidias  and  Myron, 
and  the  lifelike  paintings  Of  Polygnotus.  Nearly  all 
types  of  literature  also  go  back  to  this  period  for  their 
origin.  The  ‘father  of  history,’  Herodotus,  and  the 
most  illustrious  of  ancient  historians,  Thucydides,  and 
the  graphic  Xenophon  appeared  ;  the  great  trio  of  tragic 
writers,  Aischylus,  Sophocles,  and  Euripides,  and  the 
most  famous  of  comic  dramatists,  Aristophanes,  pro¬ 
duced  their  masterpieces  ;  and  a  period  of  enlightenment 
in  philosophy  dawned  with  the  sophists  and  Socrates.1 
Industries  and  commerce  were  also  extended,  and  a  re¬ 
markable  development  in  politics  and  practical  affairs 
took  place.  This  was  the  day  of  Cimon,  Themistocles, 
Aristides,  Cleon,  Nicias,  and  Alcibiades,  as  well  as  of 
Pericles. 

However,  the  political  supremacy  of  Athens  before 
long  came  to  an  end  in  the  conflict  with  Sparta  known 
as  the  Peloponnesian  War  (431-404  b.c.).  This  strug¬ 
gle  was  inevitable  from  the  intense  rivalry  of  the  two 
great  states,  but  it  was  begun  and  continued  through  a 


1  The  impulse  given  to  culture  in  Athens  did  not  altogether  cease  with 
the  Age  of  Pericles,  as  such  names  as  Plato  (427-347)  and  Aristotle  (386- 
322),  Demosthenes  (384-322)  and  Praxiteles  (born  about  392),  indicate. 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS) 


145 


number  of  more  immediate  causes.  At  first  Athens 
was  decidedly  successful,  but,  owing  to  her  grasping 
selfishness,  she  was  at  length  completely  humiliated, 
and  Sparta  once  more  obtained  the  hegemony. 

But  at  the  height  of  Spartan  power,  the  Thebans  in 
379  b.c.  shook  off  the  oligarchy  established  in  their  city 
by  Sparta,  and  eight  years  later  overcame  the  Spartans 
themselves  and  ravaged  their  country.  While  the  The¬ 
bans,  after  the  death  of  the  leader  Epaminondas 
(362  b.c.),  could  not  maintain  their  leadership,  Sparta 
was  never  able  to  regain  her  prestige. 

It  now  became  obvious  that  no  single  city  could  hope 
to  rule  Greece,  and  for  a  time  all  the  states  were  quies¬ 
cent.  During  this  brief  season  Athens  was  perhaps  the 
most  considerable  of  the  Hellenic  states ;  she  was  com¬ 
mercial  and  wealthy,  and  peace  suited  her.  But  a  for¬ 
eign  foe  soon  threatened  Athens  and  the  rest  of  Greece 
in  the  person  of  Philip,  king  of  Macedon.  By  military 
achievements  and  intrigue  this  warrior  gradually  made 
his  way  into  Greece,  until  in  338  b.c.  he  overwhelmed 
the  combined  armies  of  Athens  and  Thebes  at  Chae- 
ronea.  The  next  year  he  had  himself  elected  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  all  the  Greek  forces  for  an  expedi¬ 
tion  against  Persia,  but  he  was  shortly  assassinated,  and 
the  conquest  of  the  Orient  (334-323  b.c.)  was  left  for 
his  brilliant  son,  Alexander,  to  achieve. 

Greece  remained  a  dependency  of  her  northern  neigh- 


Rise  and  fall 
of  Theban 
power. 


Macedonian 

conquest. 


Roman  rule. 


146 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


t 


Simple  con¬ 
ditions  in 
prehistoric 
society. 


bor  until  the  great  world  power  of  Rome  arose.  In 
three  wars  (215-167  b.c.)  Macedon  herself  was  then 
slowly  overcome  by  the  Romans.  While  at  first  this 
looked  like  an  emancipation  for  Hellas,  her  territory, 
too,  was  eventually  invaded  by  Rome,  and  in  146  b.c. 
she  became  a  Roman  province  under  the  name  of 
Achaia.  But  while  the  political  independence  of 
Greece  had  passed,  her  intellectual  conquest  of  the 
world  had,  as  will  be  seen,  but  just  begun. 

Education  in  Prehistoric  Greece.  —  But  before  discuss¬ 
ing  the  world  dominance  of  Greece,  we  must  view  the 
development  of  her  system  of  education  while  she  was 
unconsciously  preparing  to  become  schoolmistress  of  the 
world.  To  begin  with,  a  general  picture  of  prehistoric 
society  and  education  may  be  obtained  from  Homer. 
In  these  days  social  conditions  seem  to  have  been  very 
simple,  and  but  little  beyond  those  of  the  primitive  stage. 
The  people  had  already  settled  in  rudely  fortified  towns, 
but  their  organization  was  tribal,  and  their  king  was  but 
a  sort  of  chief  who  held  his  office  not  so  much  through 
heredity  as  by  virtue  of  his  physical  and  mental  quali¬ 
fications.  He  did  not  scorn  to  perform  pastoral,  agri¬ 
cultural,  or  industrial  duties,  if  necessary,  and  he  mingled 
freely  with  his  people.  In  the  council  every  free-born 
head  of  a  family  was  allowed  full  liberty  of  expression 
and  a  vote. 

Thus,  whatever  training  was  given  the  youth  of  this 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS)  147 

primitive  period  must  have  been  intended  to  fit  them  for 
practical  life.  This  ideal  is  obvious  throughout  Homer, 
and  is,  perhaps,  most  succinctly  stated  in  the  well-known 
speech  of  Phoenix  to  Achilles:  — 

u  Peleus,  the  aged  knight,  from  Phthia  sent 
Thee,  yet  a  boy,  to  Agamemnon’s  aid, 

Unskilled  as  then  thou  wert  in  cruel  war 
And  martial  councils,  where  men  also  gain 
A  great  renown,  —  he  sent  me  with  thee,  charged 
To  teach  thee  both,  that  so  thou  mightest  become 
In  words  an  orator,  in  warlike  deeds 
An  actor.”  1 

The  ordinary  aim  of  education,  then,  was  twofold,  — 
to  make  the  pupil  wise  and  eloquent  in  council,  strong 
and  courageous  in  battle.  It  could  not  have  included 
any  literary,  scientific,  or  artistic  elements. 

In  fact,  there  were  as  yet  no  real  schools,  either  ele¬ 
mentary  or  higher,  and,  with  the  exception  of  Achilles, 
no  one  is  mentioned  as  having  a  specific  teacher.  The 
training  was  obtained  through  actual  life  in  the  family 
or  community.  The  young  people  learned  how  to  sat¬ 
isfy  the  wants  of  nature,  —  food,  clothing,  and  shelter, — 
from  their  parents,  and  acquired  their  other  activities  by 
following  the  example  of  the  adults  whom  they  met. 
Where  some  living  man  would  not  serve  the  purpose, 
the  example  of  an  ideal  person  such  as  Odysseus,  the 

1  Iliad \  IX,  438  ff.,  Bryant’s  translation. 


Practical 
nature  of 
prehistoric 
education. 


Training 
obtained 
through 
actual  life. 


148 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Imitative, 
but  some¬ 
what  ra¬ 
tionalized 
method. 


Evidence  of 
the  germ 
of  individu¬ 
alism. 


embodiment  of  wisdom  and  craft,  or  Achilles,  the  model 
of  bravery  and  action,  was  presented. 

It  should  be  noted  that  while  the  method  of  teaching 
was  that  of  imitation,  it  was  imitation  of  a  living  or  a  per¬ 
sonal  example  rather  than  of  some  precept  embalmed  in 
sacred  books  as  in  the  Orient.  It  was  more  rationalized, 
and  gave  some  opportunity  for  the  selective  element  of 
personality  to  enter  in.  It  is  this  imitation  of  an  example 
not  fixed  and  stereotyped,  but  with  possibilities  of  growth, 
that  is  evidence  of  the  leaven  which  eventually  enabled 
Greece  to  rise  above  all  previous  peoples  in  civilization. 

Even  at  this  early  period  there  can  thus  be  seen  the 
germ  of  the  ideal  to  free  the  individual  from  complete 
subserviency  to  the  social  whole.  Moreover,  through¬ 
out  the  times  depicted  by  Homer,  while  the  welfare  of 
the  group  is  obviously  the  prime  object  of  each  member 
of  society,  every  one  has  a  voice  in  deciding  what  action 
is  most  to  the  common  interest.  Tradition  and  custom 
still  hold  sway,  but  they  already  have  to  be  of  a  reason¬ 
able  type  to  be  accepted,  and  are  constantly  subject  to 
the  modification  of  individuals. 

Older  Education  of  the  Historic  Period.  — When  Greek 
history  actually  becomes  authoritative,  the  tribal  organ¬ 
ization  of  the  prehistoric  period  seems  to  have  given 
way  completely  to  that  of  the  city-state,  into  which 
the  tribes  had  been  amalgamated.  So  the  social  bond 
is  no  longer  even  nominally  the  tie  of  blood,  but  owner- 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS)  149 


ship  of  land  in  the  same  community  ;  and  the  central 
virtue  and  aim  in  life  have  more  explicitly  become  serv¬ 
ice  to  the  state.  While  even  at  the  first  the  duties  of 
the  individual  were  not  definitely  laid  down,  and  he 
was  allowed  some  personal  development,  every  one 
was  expected  to  expend  almost  his  entire  energy, 
and  surrender  his  life,  if  necessary,  in  promoting  the 
welfare  of  the  state.  This  ideal  is  apparent  in  the  two 
leading  systems  of  education,  —  the  Spartan  and  the 
Athenian. 

Spartan  Education  and  Its  Aim.  —  Sparta,  which  pos¬ 
sessed  the  earliest  education  of  which  we  have  extended 
information,  is  the  most  complete  illustration  of  this 
type.  Its  social  and  political  conditions,  as  has  already 
been  pointed  out,1  made  it  necessary  to  produce  a  race 
of  hardy  warriors  and  patriotic  citizens ;  and  strength, 
courage,  and  obedience  to  the  laws  were  held  as  the 
aims  of  education.  The  Spartan  educational  system 
was  intended  to  serve  the  state,  and  it  was  supported 
and  controlled  by  the  state.  It  is  the  one  recorded  in¬ 
stance  of  a  complete  system  of  moral  and  social  educa¬ 
tion  in  a  socialistic  state. 

Infancy.  —  State  control  began  with  birth,  The  in¬ 
fant  was  immediately  inspected  by  a  council  of  elders, 
who  decided  whether  he  was  strong  enough  to  be 
allowed  to  live.  If  he  were  sickly  or  deformed,  he  was 

1  See  pp.  141-142. 


Exposure  of 
sickly  or 
deformed 
infants,  and 
strict  train¬ 
ing  of  the 
strong. 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


The  boys 
lived  in 
common, 


150 

exposed  to  die  in  some  wild  glen  of  Mount  Taygetus,1 
unless  adopted  by  the  perioeci  or  the  helots.  If  he 
appeared  promising  enough,  he  was  formally  adopted  by 
the  state  and  left  with  his  mother  for  rearing  until  he 
was  seven  years  of  age.  He  could  not  be  swaddled,  lest 
his  limbs  should  be  checked  in  growth ;  and  he  had  to 
be  left  alone  in  the  dark  and  not  permitted  to  scream, 
that  he  might  from  the  first  become  hardy  and  learn 
self-control. 

Boyhood  and  Adolescence.  —  At  seven  the  Spartan  boy 
was  put  in  charge  of  a  state  officer  called  th  z  pee  do  7iomus 
(‘boy  trainer’).  With  the  aid  of  certain  assistants,  this 
official  supervised  the  life  and  education  of  all  the  Spar¬ 
tan  youth.  The  boys  ate  and  slept  in  common  in  public 
buildings  not  unlike  present-day  barracks.  Here  they 
were  divided  into  squads  and  companies,  which  were  in 
charge  of  the  older  and  stronger  boys,  and  were  classi¬ 
fied  according  to  their  ages  into  three  groups.  Accord¬ 
ing  to  Plutarch,  “  Of  the  boys  he  who  showed  the  best 
conduct  and  most  courage  was  made  captain  of  the 
company.  The  others  kept  their  eyes  always  upon  him, 
obeyed  his  orders,  and  underwent  patiently  whatever 
punishments  he  inflicted ;  so  that  their  whole  education 
was  an  exercise  of  obedience.”  2 

The  life  of  the  boys  during  this  training  was  one  of 

1  In  earlier  days  he  was  cast  down  a  precipice  of  the  mountain. 

2  Lycurgus ,  XVI. 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS)  1 5 1 

continual  hardening  and  discipline.  They  slept  without 
covering,  at  first  upon  pallets  of  straw,  and  after  fifteen 
upon  rushes,  which  they  plucked  from  the  banks  of  the 
Eurotas,  as  they  were  not  allowed  the  use  of  a  knife. 
They  went  without  shoes  winter  and  summer;  and 
after  they  became  twelve  years  of  age  their  entire  dress 
consisted  of  a  single  garment.  They  were  given  little 
food,  that  they  might  learn  to  endure  hunger ;  but  to 
school  them  in  craft  for  purposes  of  war,  they  were  per¬ 
mitted  to  forage  for  additional  food.  If,  however,  they 
were  detected  in  the  act  by  any  one,  they  were  con¬ 
sidered  in  disgrace  and  at  once  handed  over  to  the 
assistants  of  the  psedonomus  for  a  severe  whipping. 

The  more  direct  training  consisted  of  a  graded  course 
in  gymnastics.  The  exercises  began  with  running, 
jumping,  and  ball  playing ;  but  as  the  boys  grew  older, 
they  were  trained  also  in  throwing  the  discus,  casting 
the  javelin,  wrestling,  and  boxing.  They  were  occasion¬ 
ally  allowed  to  engage  in  the  pancratium  (‘  a  complete 
combat  ’),  a  contest  in  which  any  means  of  overcoming 
one’s  antagonist,  even  by  kicking,  biting,  scratching,  or 
gouging,  was  permitted.  These  events  were  carried  on 
in  the  open  air  and  in  the  presence  of  any  who  wished 
to  attend,  so  that  they  were  subject  to  the  criticism, 
favorable  or  otherwise,  of  the  entire  city.  Thus  a  con¬ 
testant  would  suffer  anything,  at  times  even  death, 
rather  than  fail  to  exert  himself  to  the  utmost.  The 


and  had  a 

rigorous 

regimen 


and  severe 

physical 

training. 


152 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Intellectual 
and  moral 
education  at 
a  minimum. 


Conversation 
of  older  men 
at  the  table, 


intention,  of  course,  was  not  to  make  athletes  or  promote 
beauty  or  dexterity,  but  simply  to  toughen  the  boys  and 
cultivate  qualities  of  value  in  warfare.  Dancing  supple¬ 
mented  the  gymnastic  training.  This,  too,  did  not  aim 
at  developing  grace  and  skill,  but  a  patriotic  and  reli¬ 
gious  spirit,  for  it  consisted  mostly  of  war  dances,  some¬ 
times  in  full  armor  and  following  out  military  evolutions, 
and  sacred  dances  in  honor  of  the  gods.  The  boys 
often  gave  exhibitions  of  dancing  and  gymnastics  at 
various  religious  festivals,  especially  those  in  honor  of 
Apollo. 

The  Spartan  boys,  however,  received  little  that  could 
be  strictly  accounted  an  intellectual  or  moral  education. 
While  teachers  of  reading  and  writing  may  have  existed, 
these  accomplishments  did  not  ordinarily  form  part  of 
the  training.  The  laws  of  Lycurgus  and  selections  from 
Homer,  which  had  been  set  to  music,  and  other  songs 
that  they  chanted  in  the  simple  and  dignified  Doric 
measure,  were  seldom  written  down,  but  were  committed 
to  memory.  This  music  must,  like  the  dancing,  have 
afforded  some  religious  and  patriotic  inspiration. 

The  young  Spartans  obtained  further  ethical  and  in¬ 
tellectual  training  by  listening  to  the  conversation  of  the 
older  men  at  the  meals  or  in  the  street,  and  by  being  at 
all  times  subject  to  approval  or  disapproval  for  their 
conduct.  In  this  way  they  learned  respect  for  their 
elders,  honesty,  and  self-control.  The  boys  were  them- 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS) 


153 


selves  also  often  required  by  the  youth  in  charge  of  the 
common  table  to  sing  a  song  or  give  a  concise  and  sen¬ 
sible  answer  1  to  such  a  general  inquiry  as  “  Who  is  the 
best  man  in  the  city  ?  ”  or  “  What  do  you  think  of  this 
action  ?  ”  or  some  similar  question  put  to  test  their 
powers.  The  boy  whose  answer  proved  unfitting  or  too 
wordy  had  his  thumb  bitten  by  the  youth  in  charge ; 
and  this  official  in  turn  was  sometimes  judged  after  the 
meal  by  the  older  men  present,  and  punished  if  his 
decisions  were  not  considered  wise.2 

A  more  specific  means  of  moral  training  was  the 
selection  of  some  particular  boy  as  a  comrade  by  every 
male  adult.  This,  Plutarch  tells  us,  was  a  perfectly 
honorable  attachment,  and  where  two  or  three  chose 
the  same  lad,  instead  of  provoking  jealousy,  it  only 
drew  them  nearer  together  through  mutual  interest  and 
friendly  rivalry  in  strengthening  the  boy’s  character.3 

Youth  and  Young  Manhood. — When  a  youth  reached 
eighteen,  he  began  his  distinctive  study  of  warfare.  For 
the  first  two  years  he  was  known  as  a  melleiren  (‘bud¬ 
ding  youth  ’ ),  and  was  trained  in  the  use  of  arms  and 
skirmishing.  He  was  given  a  rigorous  examination 


and  com¬ 
radeship 
with  elders. 


Training  in 
use  of  arms, 


1  Several  instances  of  such  brief,  incisive  answers  are  given  in  Plutarch’s 
Lycurgus.  They  are  characterized  even  to-day  by  the  term  ‘  laconic.* 
See  especially  Lycurgus ,  XIX-XX. 

2  See  Plutarch’s  Lycurgus ,  XVIII. 

8  The  adult  was  usually  held  responsible  for  his  protege’s  conduct, 
and  might  even  be  fined  if  the  boy  misbehaved.  See  Lycurgus ,  XVIII. 


154 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


and  real 
military  life. 


Control  of 
the  state 
even  after 
maturity. 


Women  were 
trained 
similarly  to 


every  ten  days,  and  had  his  courage  and  physique 
tested  by  being  whipped  before  the  altar  of  Artemis 
Orthia.  Plutarch  tells  us  that  these  scourgings  were 
so  severe  that  death  not  infrequently  resulted.1  At 
twenty  the  young  Spartan  became  an  eiren  (‘youth’), 
and  his  training  was  practically  that  of  real  military 
life.  He  regularly  entered  the  army  and  took  the  oath 
of  loyalty  to  Sparta.  For  ten  years  he  lived  upon  the 
coarsest  of  fare,  practiced  hunting  and  swimming,  and 
was  set  to  guard  some  border  fortress. 

Citizenship.  —  When  the  Spartan  reached  thirty,  he 
was  considered  to  have  entered  manhood.  He  then 
became  a  member  of  the  public  assembly  and  was 
required  to  marry  at  once.  But  even  then  he  had  no 
home,  and  could  visit  his  wife  only  clandestinely.  Until 
late  in  Spartan  history,  he  was  still  obliged  to  eat  at  the 
common  tables  with  the  boys,2  and  to  spend  much  of 
his  time  in  observing  their  education.  Not  only  was 
every  citizen  expected  to  correct  any  boy  or  youth 
he  found  acting  improperly,  but  it  was  considered  dis¬ 
graceful  if  he  did  not  establish  a  specific  relationship 
with  some  particular  youth.  He  also  continued  in  mili¬ 
tary  service. 

Education  of  Women.  —  The  education  of  Spartan 
women  was  very  similar  to  that  of  the  men.  While 


1  See  Plutarch’s  Lycurgus ,  XVIII. 

2  For  further  details,  see  Plutarch’s  Lycurgus,  XXIV. 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS) 


155 


the  girls  were  allowed  to  live  at  home,  they  were 
trained  in  running,  jumping,  hopping,  throwing  the 
discus,  hurling  the  javelin,  and  even  wrestling,  in  a 
regular  course.  Dancing  and  singing  were  also  taught 
the  girls,  and  on  certain  public  occasions  they  joined 
with  the  youths  in  choral  dances  and  hymns  in  honor 
of  the  gods.  The  aim  was,  of  course,  to  enable  them 
to  become  the  mothers  of  sturdy  sons,  and  to  hand 
down  a  religious  and  patriotic  spirit  to  them. 

Merits  and  Defects  of  Spartan  Education.  —  Thus, 
while  the  laws  of  Lycurgus,  unlike  the  sacred  books 
of  the  Oriental  nations,  consisted  of  broad  principles 
rather  than  specific  precepts,  and  so  admitted  of  the 
development  of  some  individuality  in  working  out  de¬ 
tails,  they  were  shaped  entirely  with  reference  to  the 
welfare  of  the  state.  “  The  Spartans,”  said  the  exile 
to  Xerxes,  “  are  the  best  of  all  men  when  fighting  in 
a  body ;  for,  though  free,  yet  they  are  not  free  in  all 
things,  since  over  them  is  set  law  as  a  master,  which 
they  fear  much  more  than  your  subjects  do  you.”1 
Their  educational  system  served  well  its  purpose  of 
creating  strong  warriors  and  devoted  citizens,  but  it 
failed  to  make  for  the  highest  manhood.  The  Spartans 
for  centuries  excelled  all  the  rest  of  Greece  in  courage, 
endurance,  and  self-control ;  their  women  were  virtuous, 
active,  and  high-spirited;  and  the  youth  showed  a 


the  men,  and 
had  much 
influence. 


Subordina¬ 
tion  to  the 
state, 


and  failure 
to  make  for 
the  highest 
manhood. 


1  Herodotus,  VII,  104. 


The  country 

remained 

stable, 


but  at  the 
expense  of 
progress. 


156  A  HISTORY^  OF  EDUCATION 

heroism  under  pain  and  privation,  and  an  obedience 
to  their  elders,  that  became  a  model  for  many  philoso¬ 
phers  and  moralists.  Yet  they  failed  to  recognize  that 
harmony  and  balance  which  was  the  underlying  ideal 
of  the  Athenian  education,  and  they  lacked  entirely 
in  all  the  finer  traits  of  human  nature.  They  developed 
practically  no  art,  literature,  or  philosophy. 

Their  education  did  result  in  great  military  achieve¬ 
ments  and  in  keeping  the  country  stable,  while  it  re¬ 
mained  in  force.  But  the  entire  system  was  based  on 
a  state  morality  rather  than  on  individual  responsibility, 
and  as  soon  as  the  Spartan  was  removed  from  his  own 
country  and  was  no  longer  subject  to  this  outside  sanc¬ 
tion  of  the  law,  his  ethical  life  was  completely  disrupted. 
After  the  Peloponnesian  War,  when  the  hegemony  of 
Greece  passed  from  Athens  to  Sparta,  the  latter  showed 
herself  quite  unequal  to  the  task  of  leading,  since  she 
lacked  both  in  moral  strength  and  adaptability  to  the 
new  situation.  Moreover,  stability  is  purchased  too 
dearly  when  accomplished  at  the  expense  of  progress. 
Even  during  the  period  of  her  supremacy,  Sparta  pro¬ 
duced  little  that  tended  to  promote  civilization.  She 
has  left  to  the  world  nothing  but  examples  of  heroism 
and  foolhardiness  alike,  as  illustrated  in  the  case  of 
Leonidas  and  his  three  hundred  warriors,  who,  even 
when  betrayed  and  deserted  by  their  allies,  calmly  met 
death  rather  than  break  the  cast-iron  laws  of  their 


157 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS) 

l 

country  by  a  wise  retreat.  Sparta  may  occasionally 
have  proven  an  inspiration,  but  never  an  enlightenment. 
Had  the  Greeks  paused  with  her  development,  they 
would  have  made  no  great  contribution  to  civilization 
beyond  that  of  the  Orient.  Our  chief  interest  in  Spar¬ 
tan  education  is,  therefore,  because  of  the  way  in  which 
it  leads  up  to  the  culture  of  Athens. 

Athenian  Education  in  the  Old  Period.  —  For  many 
centuries  Athenian  education,  like  that  of  Sparta, 
aimed  primarily  at  promoting  the  welfare  of  the  state 
without  much  consideration  of  individual  interests.  But 
the  view-point  of  Athens,  even  at  first,  differed  consider¬ 
ably  in  its  angle,  and  its  range  was  much  broader.  Her 
citizens  were  to  be  trained  for  peace  much  more  than 
for  war,  and  education  in  the  spirit  of  Athenian  institu¬ 
tions,  as  well  as  a  course  in  physical  training,  was  given 
her  boys.  Her  constant  effort  was  to  make  well- 
balanced  men.  Every  one  had  his  place  in  the  service 
of  the  state,  but  it  was  felt  that  he  could  fill  it  best  by 
securing  the  most  complete  development  personally. 
For  that  reason,  while  the  Athenian  curriculum  re¬ 
sembled  that  of  Sparta,  there  was  a  marked  difference 
in  purpose  and  in  the  relative  importance  attached  to 
the  various  subjects ;  and  even  the  earlier  education  at 
Athens  demands  a  separate  treatment. 

Childhood.  —  The  more  liberal  spirit  of  Athens  is 
made  apparent  in  the  fact  that  the  state  did  not  as 


Old  Athenian 
education 
considered 
state  welfare 
of  prime 
importance, 


but  felt  that 
personal  de¬ 
velopment 
was  neces¬ 
sary  for  this. 


Life  and 
education  of 


158 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


the  child  was 
controlled  by 
the  father 
rather  than 
the  state. 


Boys  went 
to  school  in 
the  care  of 
a  slave. 


completely  control  the  life  and  education  of  the  young 
as  in  Sparta.  The  method  of  their  rearing  was  not  as  rig¬ 
orous,  or  so  definitely  prescribed.  While  the  newly  born 
were  often  exposed,  this  was  because  the  father,  rather 
than  the  state,  felt  that  the  child  would  not  be  a  credit  to 
him,  or  that  his  family  was  already  large  enough.  The 
mother,  and  not  the  state,  had  nominal  charge  of  the 
boy,  as  well  as  the  girl,  until  he  was  seven,  although  the 
real  care  devolved  upon  the  slave  nurse.  By  listening  to 
nursery-rhymes,  folk-lore,  and  stories  about  gods  or  heroes 
from  Homer  and  Hesiod,  and  memorizing  them,  there  was 
early  cultivated  within  him  the  germ  of  that  imagination 
and  poetic  feeling  for  which  Athens  became  famous. 

Boyhood. — At  seven  the  boy  was  sent  to  school  in 
the  care  of  a  slave  known  as  the  pcedagogus  (‘  boy 
leader’),  who  carried  his  lyre  and  other  school  appur¬ 
tenances.  This  functionary  was  ordinarily  one  who 
was  unfitted  for  other  duties  by  age  or  other  physical 
disability,  but  he  had  complete  oversight  of  the  boy’s 
morals.  The  youngster  was  expected  to  obey  him,  and 
he  could  enforce  his  discipline  with  whipping,  if  neces¬ 
sary;  but  it  may  well  be  imagined  that  his  youthful 
charge  had  but  little  respect  for  him.  It  would  seem 
from  this  intrusting  of  the  child  to  the  moral  care  of 
slaves,  such  as  the  nurse  and  pedagogue,  that  Athens, 
while  broader  than  Sparta  in  its  training,  was  less  strict 
about  habit  formation  in  early  life. 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS)  1 59 


The  training  in  these  schools  to  which  the  Athenian 
boys  first  went,  was  not,  as  in  Sparta,  provided  by  the 
state  or  altogether  under  state  control.  But  any  father 
who  failed  to  provide  his  boy  with  an  education  could 
not,  by  the  laws  of  Solon,  in  his  old  age  claim  support 
from  his  son.  Education  was  mandatory,  but  individual 
responsibility  was  encouraged.  So  the  schools  were 
generally  private  ventures,  and  were  held  in  houses 
or  rooms  provided  by  the  teachers,  or  possibly,  in  some 
instances,  rented  to  them  by  the  state.  All  schools 
were,  however,  subject  to  state  supervision,  probably 
through  the  Council  of  the  Areopagus.  The  exact 
course  that  the  boy  should  take  and  the  length  of  time 
he  should  remain  in  school  were  matters  also  to  be  de¬ 
termined  by  his  father,  although  the  state  required  in 
general  that  every  one  should  be  taught  gymnastics 
and  ‘music.’ 

These  subjects  he  learned  in  two  different  elementary 
schools,  —  the  palcestra  (‘wrestling  ground’),  for  physi¬ 
cal  training,  and  the  didascaleum  (‘teaching  place’),  or 
‘  music  ’-school.  The  palaestra  seems  to  have  been 
simply  an  open  space  covered  with  sand,  having  a  race¬ 
course  on  it,  and  may  sometimes  have  been  connected 
with  the  didascaleum,  after  the  fashion  of  the  modern 
schoolyard  or  playing  fields.  While  school  hours 
lasted  the  entire  day,  from  early  in  the  morning  until 
almost  sunset,  as  so  much  of  the  course  consisted  in 


Schools  were 
private, 


and  of  two 
kinds : 


(i)  the 
palaestra,  for 
physical 
training ; 


160  A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

physical  exercise  and  ‘  activity  *  studies,  and  holidays  in 
honor  of  the  gods  were  frequent,  the  work  was  prob¬ 
ably  not  as  strenuous  as  in  Sparta. 

The  instruction  in  the  palaestra  was  given  through 
the  pczdotribes  (‘  boy  kneader  ’),  who  had  assistants  to 
anoint  the  pupils  with  oil  and  scrape  them  after  the 
exercise  was  over.  As  in  Sparta,  the  course  was  graded, 
and  besides  simple  calisthenics  and  ball-playing,  the 
pentathlurn  (‘  fivefold  contest  ’),!  which  included  run¬ 
ning,  leaping,  throwing  the  discus,  casting  the  javelin, 
and  wrestling,  formed  the  staples  of  the  curriculum. 
Boxing  was  not  allowed  until  the  boys  were  older,  lest 
they  might  be  permanently  disfigured. 

The  purpose  of  this  physical  training  in  Athens  dif¬ 
fered  from  that  in  Sparta.  As  might  be  expected,  it 
did  not  aim  to  serve  the  state  by  creating  a  race  of 
soldiers,  but  to  cultivate  ease  and  grace  of  bearing, 
adroitness,  and  strength,  and  so  to  heighten  the  morals 
and  intelligence  of  the  future  citizens.  Running  and 
jumping  were  intended  to  develop  the  lower  limbs, 
endurance  being  especially  cultivated  by  long  runs,  and 
concentration  of  energy  by  sprints  and  all  varieties  of 
jumping;  the  discus  and  the  javelin  afforded  special 
training  for  the  eye-and-arm  adjustment,  and  the  former 
especially  aided  that  poise  and  symmetry  which  com- 

1  It  is  questionable  whether  these  games  were  organized  enough  to  be 
known  by  this  term  before  the  time  of  the  ‘  new  ’  education. 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS)  l6l 


posed  the  Athenian  ideal  of  beauty  ; 1  while  all  these 
objects  were  furthered  by  wrestling,  and  the  moral 
quality  of  self-control  strengthened  in  addition. 

Naturally,  intellectual,  aesthetic,  and  moral  education 
was  more  specific  in  Athens  than  Sparta.  The  effort 
to  furnish  this  was  first  made  through  the  didascaleum , 
where  the  study  was  of  ‘  music/  which  was  said  to  be 
for  the  culture  of  the  soul  just  as  gymnastics  was  for 
the  body.  ‘  Music/  however,  had  a  broader  scope  than 
is  now  intended.  It  included  all  that  came  under  the 
patronage  of  the  nine  muses,  —  literary  subjects,  as 
well  as  musical  in  the  narrower  sense.  At  length,  when 
various  lyric,  elegiac,  and  other  poems,  as  well  as  the 
epic,  had  come  to  be  recited  to  musical  accompaniment, 
the  memory  became  overtaxed,  and  it  was  necessary  for 
the  musicians  who  used  them  to  commit  them  to  writing. 
Consequently,  no  distinction  was  made  between  musical 
and  literary  training,  and  both  were  furnished  by  the 
same  teacher,  the  citharistes  (‘  lyre-player  ’),  or  ‘  music’- 
master.2 

As  elements  of  the  literary  training,  reading  and  writ¬ 
ing  were  studied.  After  the  boy  had  learned  his  letters 
by  tracing  them  in  sand,  he  was  taught  to  copy  verses 
and  selections  from  well-known  authors,  at  first  upon 


and  (2)  the 
didascaleum, 
for  intellec¬ 
tual  training. 


At  the  didas¬ 
caleum  were 
taught  read¬ 
ing,  writing, 
and  litera¬ 
ture, 


1  This  canon  of  the  human  figure  is  embodied  in  the  familiar  discobalus 
of  Myron,  which  is  still  preserved  in  the  Vatican  museum. 

2  Later,  the  term  grammatistes  (‘  teacher  of  letters  ’)  was  used  to  desig¬ 
nate  the  instructor  in  literature  and  rhetoric. 


M 


1 62 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


and  music. 


wax-tablets  with  a  stylus,  and  later  upon  parchment 
with  pen  and  ink.  “  In  the  works  of  the  great  poets,” 
says  Plato,  “  are  contained  many  admonitions,  and 
many  tales,  and  praises,  and  encomia  of  ancient  famous 
men,  which  he  is  required  to  learn  by  heart,  in  order 
that  he  may  imitate  or  emulate  them  and  desire  to 
become  like  them.” 1  The  writing  lesson  of  one  day 
served  for  the  reading  of  the  next ;  so  that  if  the  copy 
appeared  illegible,  the  boy  had  his  own  carelessness  to 
blame.  As  punctuation  and  accents  had  not  yet  been 
invented,  and  a  passage  was  written  without  spacing 
between  the  words,  the  younger  boys  seem  to  have 
been  obliged  to  have  the  teacher  separate  the  words  and 
clauses  before  they  began  to  read.  And  the  older  boys 
must  have  found  it  something  of  an  intellectual  test  to 
divide  the  writing  mentally,  and  read  with  the  distinct¬ 
ness  and  expression  that  was  required  of  them. 

Instruction  in  music  proper,  until  the  fifth  century, 
consisted  in  learning  to  chant  religious  or  patriotic 
poems,  and  gradually  to  accompany  one’s  self  on  the 
seven-stringed  lyre.  Only  the  strong,  simple,  Doric 
airs  were  used,  and  anything  like  professional  skill  was 
tabooed  as  being  unworthy  of  a  liberal  training.  These 
lyrics  were  taught  the  b6ys,  “  in  order  that  they  might 
learn  to  be  more  gentle,  harmonious,  and  rhythmical, 
and  so  more  fitted  for  speech  and  action;  for  the 

1  Plato,  Protagoras ,  325  D. 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS)  163 


life  of  man  in  every  part  has  need  of  harmony  and 
rhythm.”1  It  was  necessary  for  the  pupils  to  under¬ 
stand  the  rhythm  and  melody,  that  they  might  bring 
out  the  meaning  of  the  poem,  and  the  older  boys  were 
often  required  to  improvise  an  accompaniment  that 
should  express  the  theme.  Thus  music  constituted  an 
intellectual  and  ethical,  as  well  as  an  aesthetic,  training. 

There  was  one  other  subject  in  the  elementary 
curriculum  at  Athens,  —  dancing.  This  is  difficult  to 
classify.  It  might  well  be  considered  under  either 
gymnastics  or  music ;  and,  as  a  fact,  while  the  instruc¬ 
tion  probably  took  place  in  the  palaestra,  it  was  con¬ 
ducted  by  the  citharist.  One  object  seems  to  have 
been,  as  in  music,  to  express  the  meaning  of  some 
poem  and  arouse  a  patriotic  and  religious  spirit.  The 
dancing  consisted  in  a  rhythmical  swaying  of  the  entire 
body,  expressing  by  a  sort  of  pantomimic  ballet  the 
sentiment  which  was  at  the  same  time  sung  in  words 
and  accompanied  on  the  lyre  by  a  musician.  Thus 
dancing  was  intended  to  train  the  whole  being,  —  body 
and  soul.  It  seems  to  have  been  a  point  of  contact  be¬ 
tween  two  seemingly  diverse  branches  of  education,  and 
made  apparent  their  essential  relation  and  harmony. 

This  programme  of  elementary  education  in  Athens 
was  much  richer  in  possibilities  than  would  appear  from 
the  fewness  of  subjects.  Until  the  fourth  century  it 

1  Plato,  Protagoras ,  326  A. 


Dancing 
was  a  point 
of  contact 
between 
physical  and 
intellectual 
education. 


Value  of  the 
content  was 
greater  than 
it  seems. 


164 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Methods  of 
teaching 
were  not 
much  de¬ 
veloped. 


contained  practically  no  arithmetic  or  other  mathematics, 
but  left  these  to  be  acquired  in  practical  life;  drawing 
also  was  not  added  until  later;  and  none  of  the  other 
elements  that  now  seem  necessary  appeared  there  as 
separate  subjects.  But  the  material  read  and  memo¬ 
rized,  sung  and  danced  to,  was  filled  with  valuable  ex¬ 
perience  and  moral  teaching,  and  the  explanations  and 
interpretations  given  by  the  teachers  had  to  bring  in  all 
the  learning  of  the  times.  Expositions  of  Homer  and 
Hesiod,  Tyrtaeus,  Aleman,  and  Sappho,  Theognis  and 
Solon,  in  bringing  out  the  inspiration  of  a  noble  litera¬ 
ture,  would  require  a  considerable  range  of  information 
concerning  religion,  ethics,  politics,  and  social  life,  and 
could  easily  be  correlated  with  any  study  in  our  curricu¬ 
lum  to-day.  The  moral,  aesthetic,  and  general  cultural 
value  of  these  studies  must  have  been  far  greater  than 
would  be  suggested  to  the  modern  educator  from  the 
meagerness  of  the  course. 

On  the  whole,  however,  teaching  had  received  as  yet 
but  little  development  in  Athens.  The  pupil  learned  to 
write  by  imitating  the  copy  of  his  teacher.  Reading 
was  taught  by  the  alphabetic,  rather  than  the  phonetic, 
method;  and  the  boys  repeated  the  letters  and  poems 
after  the  teacher,  and  sang  or  read  them  in  concert. 
This  memory  work  was  carried  on  with  little  idea  of 
the  meaning,  although  it  was  afterward  explained  to 
the  pupils. 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS)  165 


Nor  were  there  any  qualifications  for  becoming  a 
schoolmaster,  and  teachers  were,  in  consequence,  not 
much  esteemed.1  In  discipline,  too,  the  appeal  was 
made  to  extraneous  motives,  either  fear  of  punishment 
or  hope  of  reward.  Rivalry,  which  played  so  important 
a  part  in  all  phases  of  Greek  life,  must  have  been  largely 
depended  upon  in  Athenian  schools. 

Adolescence.  —  At  fifteen  the  Athenian  boy,  if  he 
belonged  to  the  wealthier  and  more  cultured  class,  en¬ 
tered  what  might  be  considered  his  secondary  education. 
Most  of  this  was  carried  on  at  one  of  the  exercising 
grounds  in  the  thick  groves  just  outside  Athens.  These 
were  called  gymnasia ,2  and  the  teachers  came  to  be 
known  as  gymnastce .  Unlike  the  palaestra  and  the  di- 
dascaleum,  these  institutions  were  maintained  at  state 
expense.  The  course  consisted  largely  of  physical 
training  of  a  more  advanced  character ;  the  features  of 

iThis  may,  however,  have  been  due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  the  ele¬ 
mentary  teachers,  both  psedotribes  and  citharists,  charged  a  fee,  as  the 
Athenians  could  not  conceive  of  a  proper  relation  between  teacher  and 
pupil  that  did  not  exist  purely  from  mutual  regard.  Compare  the 
Athenian  estimate  of  the  sophists,  p.  174. 

2  Two  of  these  had  been  established  early  in  the  sixth  century  by 
Solon :  the  ‘  Academy  ’  on  the  northwest  in  the  valley  of  the  Cephissus, 
intended  for  Athenians  of  pure  blood,  and  under  the  protection  of  Athene; 
and  the  ‘  Cynosarges,’  on  the  east  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Lycabettus,  for 
those  of  mixed  blood,  which  had  Heracles  as  a  patron.  Plato  afterward 
taught  at  the  Academy,  while  the  Lyceum,  which  was  not  founded  until 
the  time  of  Pericles,  and  was  near  the  river  Ilissus,  became  the  seat  of 
Aristotle’s  lectures. 


Secondary 
education 
in  the 
gymnasia. 


1 66 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


The  youth 
was  now 
given  much 
liberty,  al¬ 
though  re¬ 
sponsible  to 
his  father 
and  the 
Areopagus. 


the  palaestra  were  continued,  but  made  more  severe, 
and  certain  more  vigorous  exercises  were  added.  The 
running  was  now  done  in  armor,  and  wrestling  became 
rougher  and  more  complicated.  It  was  also  supple¬ 
mented  by  boxing,  and  the  pancratium  was  sometimes 
allowed.  Swimming  and  hunting  were  engaged  in  out¬ 
side  the  gymnasia,  although  the  latter  could  not  possess 
the  same  allurements  that  it  did  in  the  more  sparsely 
settled  and  hilly  country  about  Sparta. 

At  this  stage  the  boy  passed  from  the  surveillance  of 
the  pedagogue,  but  was  still  under  the  care  of  his  father 
or  guardian,  who  continued  to  be  responsible  for  his 
conduct.  The  adolescent  was  also  subject  to  the  Coun¬ 
cil  of  the  Areopagus,  which  could  punish  him  severely 
for  any  breach  of  morals,  and  each  gymnasium  was  under 
the  strict  supervision  of  a  state  official  known  as  the'jfl- 
phronistes  (‘  regulator  ’),  or  censor  of  morals.  Such  care 
was  necessary,  as  this  was  a  critical  period  in  the  boy’s 
life.  He  had  been  given  a  sudden  access  of  liberty, 
which  he  might  at  first  be  tempted  to  abuse.  He  was 
now  allowed  to  go  wherever  he  wished,  —  into  the  agora , 
the  courts,  or  the  theater,  as  well  as  the  gymnasium ; 
and  became  acquainted  with  public  life  through  first¬ 
hand  contact.  So,  too,  while  he  was  given  no  direct 
instruction  of  an  intellectual  character,  not  even  in  po¬ 
litical  science,  yet  at  this  most  impressionable  period  he 
learned,  through  informal  intercourse  with  his  elders, 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS)  1 67 


to  discuss  and  converse,  and  acquired  a  knowledge  of 
ethics  and  of  civic  and  social  affairs  that  fitted  him  well 
for  the  duties  of  citizenship. 

Youth.  —  At  eighteen  the  young  man  finished  his 
secondary  education  and  was  presented  by  his  father  as 
a  candidate  for  citizenship.  If  it  could  be  shown  that 
he  was  legitimate  and  born  of  Athenians  of  pure  blood, 
and  was  up  to  the  physical,  intellectual,  and  moral  stand¬ 
ards,  his  name  was  entered  upon  the  register  of  citizens, 
and  he  was  publicly  introduced  by  the  king-archon. 
He  was  then  armed  with  spear  and  shield  by  his  father, 
or,  if  his  parent  had  perished  in  battle,  by  the  state,  and 
was  permitted  at  the  shrine  of  Aglaurus  to  take  the  oath 
of  loyalty  to  the  gods,  state,  and  traditions  of  Athens.1 

The  youth  now  came  directly  under  the  laws  of  the 
state,  but  he  was  considered  a  novice,  and  did  not  share 
in  civic  affairs.  During  this  period  he  was  known  as  an 
ephebus  (‘  youth  ’)  or  cadet,  and  for  two  years  continued 
his  education  with  a  course  in  militia  duties.  The  first 

1  The  oath  ran  as  follows :  “  I  will  never  disgrace  these  sacred  arms, 
nor  desert  my  companion  in  the  ranks.  I  will  fight  for  temples  and  public 
property,  both  alone  and  with  many.  I  will  transmit  my  fatherland,  not 
only  not  less,  but  greater  and  better,  than  it  was  transmitted  to  me.  I  will 
obey  the  magistrates  who  may  at  any  time  be  in  power.  I  will  observe 
both  the  existing  laws  and  those  which  the  people  may  unanimously  here¬ 
after  make;  and,  if  any  person  seek  to  annul  the  laws  or  set  them  at 
naught,  I  will  do  my  best  to  prevent  him,  and  will  defend  them  both  alone 
and  with  many.  I  will  honor  the  religion  of  my  fathers.  And  I  call  to 
witness  Aglaurus,  Enyalius,  Ares,  Zeus,  Thallo,  Auxo,  and  Hegemone.” 


Ephebic, 
or  cadet 
training. 


1 68 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Even  after 
citizenship, 
education 
continued 
through  en¬ 
vironment. 


Women  were 
trained  only 


year  the  ephebus  spent  in  the  neighborhood  of  Athens. 
Here  he  led  the  usual  life  of  a  soldier ;  he  slept  in  the 
open  air,  drilled,  and  garrisoned  the  city,  and  might  at 
any  time  be  called  upon  for  active  service.  At  the  end 

s' 

of  a  year  he  took  a  public  examination-  in  the  use  of 
arms  and  was  then  transferred  to  some  fortress  on  the 
frontier,  where  he  acted  as  a  sort  of  rural  police  and  ac¬ 
quainted  himself  with  the  topography  of  Attica.  After 
another  year  he  took  the  examination  for  citizenship 
called  dokimasia ,  and  when  he  passed,  became  a  full- 
fledged  citizen. 

Citizenship.  —  But  even  with  the  attainment  of  citizen¬ 
ship,  the  education  of  the  Athenian  did  not  cease. 
Throughout  the  rest  of  his  life  he  was  constantly  sur¬ 
rounded  by  the  means  for  a  liberal  training.  The 
drama,  architecture,  sculpture,  and  art  of  ancient 
Athens  everywhere  furnished  him  with  noble  ideals 
toward  which  to  struggle;  and  the  civic  problems,  re¬ 
ligious  festivals,  and  literary  contests  all  stimulated  him 
to  intellectual  and  aesthetic  efforts  of  the  highest  sort. 
While  the  Athenians  were  not,  like  the  Spartans,  bound 
by  state  regulation  to  eat  in  common  or  assist  in  the 
education  of  the  youth,  they  endeavored  always  to  ad¬ 
vance  the  state  by  the  quality  of  their  manhood  and 
citizenship. 

Education  of  Women.  —  The  education  of  women  was 
purposely  neglected  by  the  Athenians.  They  felt,  as 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (TPIE  GREEKS)  169 

did  the  Spartans,  that  education  existed  only  for  prac¬ 
tical  activities  ;  but  unlike  their  great  rivals,  they  held 
that  men  alone  should  take  part  in  public  life,  and 
so  only  their  sex  required  specific  training.  Woman, 
whose  duties  of  wife  and  mother  lay  entirely  within 
doors,  needed  no  knowledge  beyond  ordinary  skill  in 
household  affairs;  and  those  who  possessed  any  in¬ 
tellectual  attainments  were  necessarily  regarded  as 
wanting  in  moral  sense  and  conduct. 

Character  of  the  Old  Athenian  Education.  —  Hence,  in 
the  rights  of  women  and  in  habit  formation  among  chil¬ 
dren,  Athens  was  excelled  by  Sparta;  but  upon  the 
whole,  the  Athenian  education  was  far  superior  to  the 
Spartan  in  allowing  more  opportunity  for  individual 
development.  Except  in  general  principles,  the  laws  did 
not  interfere  with  the  parents  in  the  details  of  educat¬ 
ing  their  children,  and  private  life  was  not  altogether 
crushed  out.  The  course  admitted  of  a  more  rounded 
education  than  that  of  Sparta,  and  was  rich  in  intellec¬ 
tual,  aesthetic,  and  moral  content.  During  youth  and 
manhood  especially,  the  Athenian  was  given  great  lati¬ 
tude  in  the  development  of  his  character,  and  had  every 
opportunity  to  secure  a  liberal  training.  Consequently, 
while  Athens  for  many  years  retained  a  kind  of  state 
morality  and  was  somewhat  dependent  upon  tradition, 
elements  of  individualism  and  some  development  of 
personality  were  manifest  in  her  education  even  at  an 


in  house¬ 
hold  affairs. 


More  oppor¬ 
tunity  for 
individual 
development 
than  in 
Sparta, 


but  so  great 
a  similarity 
that  both 
systems  were 
included 
under  ‘  old  ’ 
Greek  edu¬ 
cation. 


Factors  in 
the  change 
to  the  new 
ideals. 


170  A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

early  day.  Where  Sparta  educated  preeminently  for 
military  service  and  citizenship,  Athens  endeavored  to 
train  for  manhood,  that  the  more  efficient  citizen  might 
thereby  result. 

Nevertheless,  until  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth 
century  b.c.,  despite  wide  divergences  in  ideals  and 
details  of  accomplishment,  Athenian  education  re¬ 
sembled  the  Spartan  in  its  purpose,  organization,  and 
content.  For  that  reason,  the  early  history  of  Athens 
is  usually  grouped  with  that  of  Sparta  throughout  as 
representative  of  what  Aristophanes  called  the  ‘  old ' 
education,  where  personality  was  given  less  recognition, 
and  the  individual  was  subordinated  to  the  good  of  the 
whole.  This  characterization  is,  of  course,  in  contrast 
to  Greek  education  in  the  ‘  new  *  period,  which  is  repre¬ 
sented  by  Athens  alone. 

Athenian  Education  in  the  New  Period.  —  This  new 
type  of  education  may  in  some  measure  be  considered 
a  natural  evolution  from  the  old.  The  gradual  rise  of 
broad  democratic  ideals  and  the  opportunities  arising 
from  the  supremacy  of  Athens,  culminating  in  the 
enlightened  Periclean  age,  which  have  already  been 
sketched,1  seem  to  be  a  legitimate  outcome  of  the  old 
concept  of  developing  the  individual  for  the  sake  of  the 
state,  and  a  move  toward  strengthening  the  demand  for 
an  education  that  should  more  adequately  recognize  the 

1  See  pp.  1 43- 1 44. 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS) 


interests  of  the  individual.  To  this  extent,  the  old 
theory  of  education  appears  to  have  committed  pro¬ 
gressive  suicide.  But  as  the  result  of  the  Persian  wars, 
a  decidedly  revolutionary  tendency  was  also  at  work  in 
Athenian  society  and  was  probably  more  effective  in 
producing  the  transition  in  ideals  and  practice. 

The  extended  conflict  with  a  powerful  people  from 
the  Orient,  possessing  a  well-organized  but  widely  dif¬ 
ferent  body  of  traditions,  the  political  and  commercial 
intercourse  with  a  variety  of  other  states  and  nations, 
which  ensued  from  the  formation  of  the  Athenian 
Empire  and  the  social  contact  with  foreigners  from 
every  land  that  were  thronging  the  streets  of  Athens, 
resulted  in  an  interchange  of  customs  and  ideas  that 
greatly  broadened  the  views  of  the  Athenians,  stimu¬ 
lated  their  intellectual  activity,  and  led  to  a  reconstruc¬ 
tion  of  their  practices  and  beliefs.  A  growing  familiar¬ 
ity  with  new  traditions  and  activities  brought  about  a 
toleration  of  them  and  a  comparison  with  the  old,  with 
the  inevitable  rejection  of  any  portion  of  either  that 
could  not  stand  the  test. 

Certain  conditions  seem  especially  symptomatic  of 
this  break-up  of  old  traditions,  and  are  characteristic  of 
the  increased  emphasis  upon  the  individual.  In  theol¬ 
ogy,  the  stories  about  the  old  gods  and  their  rather 
arbitrary  control  of  the  world  were  replaced  by  more 
scientific  attempts  at  an  explanation  of  nature.  Philos- 


Changes  in 

theology, 

philosophy, 

and  literature 

especially 

resulted. 


172 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Confusion  in 
society  was 
evident. 


Individual¬ 
ism  was  re¬ 
flected  in 
education. 


ophy  also  shifted  the  emphasis  of  its  search  after  ulti¬ 
mate  reality  from  nature  to  man.  The  content  of 
literature  showed  the  change  in  a  similar  way.  It 
came  gradually  to  concern  itself  with  more  human  in¬ 
terests,  such  as  are  contained  in  the  dramas  of  Euripides, 
rather  than  with  such  stern  old  notions  of  duty  and  fate 
as  appear  in  the  Prometheus  of  ^Eschylus  or  the  CEdipus 
Tyrannies  of  Sophocles. 

As  a  natural  concomitant  of  this  rapid  transition, 
society  seems  for  a  time  to  have  been  completely  dis¬ 
rupted.  The  old  was  shattered,  and  while  new  ideals 
were  being  constructed,  a  groping  ensued.  While  the 
latitude  given  the  individual  was  destined,  as  always, 
to  produce  progress  in  the  long  run,  and  was  of  great 
ultimate  service  to  the  world,  more  immediately  a  low 
ebb  in  morals  at  Athens  resulted.  If  we  can  rely  at 
all  upon  Aristophanes,  even  after  his  witty  exagger¬ 
ations  have  been  properly  discounted,  it  would  seem 
that  children  became  impudent,  cunning,  and  impure; 
wives  turned  shrewish,  extravagant,  and  unfaithful ; 
husbands  neglected  their  duties  as  householders  and 
citizens  in  a  search  for  disreputable  and  dishonest 
gain ;  slaves  became  disobedient,  lazy,  and  disloyal ; 
skepticism  and  license  were  rampant,  and  confusion 
was  general.  It  was  individualism  run  riot. 

Education  especially  reflected  the  conditions  of  the 
period.  Its  ideals  became  more  and  more  individual- 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS) 


173 


istic.  The  times  demanded  a  training  that  would  pro¬ 
mote  the  happiness  of  the  individual  with  little  or 
no  consideration  for  the  welfare  of  the  state  as  a 
whole.  The  old  education  seemed  narrow  and  barren 
of  content;  and  there  arose  a  desire  for  all  sorts  of 
knowledge  that  might  contribute  to  one’s  advance¬ 
ment,  whether  it  increased  his  usefulness  or  not.  Skill 
in  debate  and  public  speaking  was  especially  sought, 
because  of  the  unusual  opportunity  for  personal 
achievement  in  politics. 

The  Sophists. — To  meet  these  demands,  a  new  set 
of  teachers,  who  called  themselves  sophistcz  (‘wise 
men  ’),  came  into  prominence.  They  were  generally 
colonial  Greeks1  who  had  acquired  much  knowledge 
and  experience  through  wide  travel.  Hence  they 
were  able  to  view  the  traditional  Athenian  education 
from  the  outside  and  detect  its  inability  to  adapt  itself 
to  the  new  situation.  They  especially  professed  to  be 
competent  to  prepare  young  men  for  a  career  of  glory 
and  profit,  and  some  of  them  even  claimed  to  teach 
any  subject  whatsoever,  or  how  to  defend  either  side 
of  an  argument  successfully.  This,  together  with  the 
want  of  modesty  implied  in  the  name  they  had  assumed, 
was  quite  opposed  to  the  Athenian  notion  of  integrity 

1The  new  tendencies  arose  in  the  colonies,  where  the  first  conflict 
of  traditions  naturally  took  place.  From  these  points  of  unsettled  con¬ 
ditions  the  sophists  emigrated  to  Athens. 


The  sophists, 
who  pro¬ 
fessed  to  pre¬ 
pare  young 
men  for  a 
career,  were 
in  disrepute. 


Character 
of  their 
teaching. 


174  A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

and  proper  balance  of  mind ;  and  they  further  offended 
the  national  sense  of  propriety  by  charging  a  fee  for 
their  services.1 

In  consequence,  the  orthodox  citizens  of  Athens 
were  very  suspicious  of  these  ‘foreign’  tutors,  but  it 
must  not  be  concluded  that  the  sophists  as  a  class 
were  wanting  in  character.  While  there  were  undoubt¬ 
edly  charlatans  among  them,  as  is  likely  to  be  the 
case  with  any  new  movement,  their  number,  neverthe¬ 
less,  also  included  many  worthy  men,  such  as  Protag¬ 
oras  of  Abdera,  so  much  admired  by  Socrates,  and 
Gorgias  of  Leontini,  who  rendered  such  distinguished 
service  to  oratory.  Most  of  these  teachers  afforded 
their  pupils  as  thorough  a  course  in  natural  science 
and  political  and  economic  problems  as  was  possible 
at  the  time,  and  trained  them  honestly  and  carefully 
in  rhetorical  presentation.  Sometimes,  to  be  sure, 
especially  in  later  days,  the  sophistic  discipline  con¬ 
sisted  in  acquiring  superficial  information  and  bon  mots , 
and  memorizing  set  speeches  upon  a  variety  of  topics ; 
and,  with  even  the  best  of  the  sophists,  mere  form, 
pretentious  argumentation,  and  word  quibbles  2  played  an 
important  part,  and  instruction,  rather  than  a  training 
in  moral  habit,  became  characteristic  of  their  education. 

1  See  footnote  on  page  165. 

2  Prodicus  of  Ceos  was  especially  famous  for  his  distinctions  between 
synonyms. 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS) 


175 


The  effect  of  this  teaching  was  naturally  felt  most 
strongly  by  the  adolescents  in  the  gymnasium  stage 
of  education.  These  young  men  were  ambitious  to 
distinguish  themselves  in  politics,  and  the  physical 
training  which  had  hitherto  dominated  the  course  in 
the  gymnasium  could  not  be  of  much  service  for  states¬ 
manship.  Consequently,  this  kind  of  development  was 
abandoned  for  the  study  of  grammatical  and  rhetorical 
subtleties ;  and,  as  Aristophanes  phrases  it,  the  youths 
became  narrow  of  chest  and  glib  of  tongue.  When¬ 
ever  a  sophist  appeared  in  the  street,  the  agora,  or 
the  house,  the  young  men  crowded  about  him  to 
borrow  from  his  store  of  experience  and  wisdom,  and 
acquire  his  method  of  argument. 

But  the  influence  of  the  sophists  also  extended  some¬ 
what  to  the  ephebic  and  younger  citizens,  and  the  new 
ideals  likewise  reacted  on  the  lower  schools.  The  ex¬ 
ercises  of  the  palaestra  were  no  longer  intended  to 
secure  the  proper  balance  and  endurance,  that  better 
citizens  might  be  made,  but  for  the  sake  of  the  glow  of 
health,  or  for  obtaining  such  form  and  grace  as  would 
impart  aesthetic  pleasure.  The  rigor  of  the  training 
was  greatly  abated,  and  warm  baths  replaced  the  cold 
plunge  that  had  formerly  braced  their  sinews.  The 
literary  work  in  the  didascaleum,  besides  epic  poetry, 
which  was  now  considered  out  of  date,  came  to  include 
the  reflective  and  didactic  poems  of  Simonides,  The- 


Its  effect 
felt  by  those 
in  the  gym¬ 
nasium 
especially, 


but  also  by 
the  ephebes, 
the  younger 
citizens,  and 
those  in 
the  lower 
schools. 


176 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Extreme  in¬ 
dividualism 
of  the 
sophists. 


ognis,  Archilochus,  and  others,  who  aimed  at  teaching 
morals  in  aphoristic  form ;  and  much  fruitless  discus¬ 
sion  concerning  their  meaning  was  carried  on.  Music 
was  now  taught,  not  so  much  to  stimulate  patriotism  or 
to  foster  intellectual  attainments  for  the  sake  of  the 
state,  as  to  enable  the  performer  to  secure  pleasure  or 
exhibit  individual  skill.  Instead  of  the  old  patriotic 
and  religious  songs  sung  to  the  simple  Doric  airs  and 
accompanied  upon  the  seven-stringed  lyre,  there  were 
introduced  complicated  instruments  of  all  sorts,  requir¬ 
ing  much  skill,  rhythms  like  the  Lydian  and  Phrygian, 
which  pleased  the  ear  and  were  difficult  in  execution, 
and  other  musical  novelties. 

All  this  inroad  upon  the  time-honored  curriculum 

% 

shows  how  fully  the  sophists  embodied  the  individual¬ 
ism  of  the  times.  In  all  matters  they  represented  the 
unlimited  inquiry  and  discussion  that  was  going  on, 
and  the  consequent  subversion  of  Athenian  tradition 
and  civilization.  While  the  sophists  criticised,  they 
made  no  effort  to  stay  the  disintegration,  and  offered 
nothing  to  take  the  place  of  the  old  that  was  being 
destroyed.  Their  attitude  was  purely  negative.  Al¬ 
though  they  held  no  body  of  doctrine  common  to  them 
all,  they  were  generally  at  one  in  their  position  of 
extreme  individualism.  They  often  went  so  far  as  to 
insist  that  there  could  not  safely  be  any  universal  cri¬ 
teria  in  knowledge  or  morals;  that  no  satisfactory 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS) 


1 77 


interpretation  of  life  could  be  made  for  all,  but  that 
every  fact  and  situation  should  be  subject  to  the  judg¬ 
ment  of  the  individual.  No  doubt  the  formula  attrib¬ 
uted  to  Protagoras,  “  Man  (i.e.  the  individual)  is  the 
measure  of  all  things,  both  of  the  seen  and  the  unseen,” 
would  have  expressed  the  attitude  common  to  most  of 
them. 

Thus  the  sophists  were  only  carrying  to  its  legitimate 
conclusion  the  complete  reaction  from  the  old  ideal  of 
subordination  of  the  individual  to  the  state ;  and,  while 
their  doctrine  of  individualism  was  temporarily  con¬ 
nected  with  much  social  disorder,  it  was  prophetic  of 
a  higher  civilization.  Destruction  must  sometimes  pre¬ 
pare  the  way  for  reconstruction,  when  social  conditions 
become  too  hard  and  fast.  As  a  body,  the  sophists 
were  earnestly,  though  perhaps  unconsciously,  striving 
to  close  the  period  of  unreflective  acceptance  of  tradi¬ 
tion,  and  awaken  within  every  one  a  sense  of  individual 
responsibility.  While  others  were  required  to  rebuild 
the  social  and  ethical  structure,  theirs  was  the  first  step 
toward  moral  freedom. 

Reactionary  Forces.  —  Meanwhile,  the  conservative  System  of 
element  in  society  was  making  its  usual  attempt  to  Pythagoras* 
adjust  the  unsettled  conditions  by  suggesting  a  return 
to  the  old.  Various  schemes  had  been  advanced,  even 
before  the  sophists  had  come  into  prominence.  The 
plan  most  completely  worked  out,  both  in  theory  and 


N 


i78 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


yEschylus, 

Aristopha¬ 

nes, 

Xenophon, 
and  others. 


practice,  was  that  of  Pythagoras  (about  580-500  b.c.). 
He  formulated  a  socialistic  system  in  opposition  to  the 
growing  individualistic  tendency  as  early  as  the  latter 
half  of  the  sixth  century.  Adopting  an  analogy  from 
the  ‘  harmony  ’  of  the  celestial  bodies  and  from  the 
relation  of  the  powers  in  the  individual  to  each  other, 
he  arranged  a  definite  hierarchy  in  society,  so  that  each 
member  should  have  his  proper  place,  and  complete 
harmony  and  social  order  should  ensue.  Similarly,  he 
planned  an  educational  scheme  for  the  harmonizing  of 
the  individual ;  his  reproductive  power  was  to  be  subor¬ 
dinated  to  nutrition  through  gymnastics,  nutrition  to 
sensation  by  music,  and  sensation  to  reason  by  means 
of  arithmetic,  geometry,  and  astronomy.  Under  this 
system  Pythagoras  organized  a  religious  brotherhood 
with  certain  ascetic  and  superstitious  rules,  which  for  a 
time  proved  very  successful  in  Magna  Graecia,  and 
eventually  became  the  prototype  of  many  fixed  social 
schemes. 

As  the  influence  of  the  sophists  began  to  be  felt,  other 
representatives  of  the  reactionary  movement  also  ap¬ 
peared.  The  aristocratic  party  naturally  held  to  the  old 
order  of  things,  and  advocated  a  return  as  the  only 
remedy.  Also  ^Eschylus  ( 5 2 5  — 4 5 ^  B-c-)>  ‘father  of 
tragedy,’  attempted  to  preserve  the  traditional  mythol¬ 
ogy  by  interpreting  it  in  an  ethical  sense,  and  became 
the  greatest  exponent  of  the  old  system  of  institutional 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS)  179 

morals  in  Greece.  In  comedy,  that  matchless  caricatur¬ 
ist  of  Athens,  Aristophanes  (about  445-380  b.c.),  used 
his  plays  as  a  vehicle  to  parody  the  new  conditions  and 
contrast  them  unfavorably  with  the  old.  Then,  in  the 
Cyropczdicty  or  Education  of  Cyrus ,  Xenophon  (about 
43 °-370  b.c.)  advocated  a  complete  reversion  to  the  ideal 
of  subserviency  to  the  state.  Under  the  guise  of  de¬ 
scribing  the  training  of  a  Persian  prince,  he  practically 
presented  the  old  Greek  plan  of  education,  partly  as  it 
was  in  vogue  at  Athens,  but  mostly  as  in  Sparta.  On 
the  practical  side,  Pericles  endeavored  to  bring  the 
Athenians  back  to  an  absorption  in  the  welfare  of  the 
state  by  beautifying  Athens  in  every  way,  and  by  inter¬ 
esting  them  in  public  exhibitions,  and,  when  these  efforts 
failed,  he  appealed  to  their  patriotism  by  involving  them 
in  the  Peloponnesian  War. 

The  Mediators.  —  But  the  social  process  can  never 
move  backward,  and  a  reconstruction  on  some  higher 
plane  is  needed  if  the  effects  of  destruction  are  to  be 
overcome.  Some  plan  to  harmonize  the  interest  of  the 
individual  with  that  of  society  had  to  be  devised.  The 
method  of  obtaining  this  desideratum  was  the  problem 
set  themselves  by  Socrates,  Plato,  and  Aristotle.  As  in 
the  case  of  the  sophists,  they  recognized  that  the  tradi¬ 
tional  beliefs  and  sanctions,  including  the  gods,  the  old 
social  order,  and  the  former  ideals  and  content  of  educa¬ 
tion,  had  been  outlived,  and  that  the  individual  could 


i8o 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


How  Soc¬ 
rates  differed 
from  the 
sophists. 


not  find  truth  and  morality  through  an  institutional  sys¬ 
tem  of  ethics.  At  the  same  time,  they  felt  that  the  ex¬ 
treme  individualism  of  the  sophists  was  too  negative  a 
basis  upon  which  to  build.  Without  a  more  socialized 
standard  of  knowledge  and  morality,  they  saw  that  life 
could  not  be  satisfactorily  interpreted.  Thus  philos¬ 
ophy  began  as  a  means  of  better  social  expression. 

Socrates.  —  This  mediating  effort  was  begun  by  Soc¬ 
rates  (469-399  b.c.),  the  homely  and  abstemious  philos¬ 
opher,  who  taught  contemporaneously  with  the  sophists. 
While  he  started  with  the  formula  of  Protagoras,  he 
maintained  that  the  ‘  man  ’  indicated  thereby  was  not  the 
individual  man.  That  is,  there  is  a  body  of  truth  com¬ 
mon  to  the  intelligences  of  all  men,  and  “  man  is  the 
measure  of  all  things  ”  only  so  far  as  the  knowledge  by 
which  he  judges  of  the  truth  has  this  universal  validity. 
It  is  not  the  peculiar  view  of  any  individual  that  repre¬ 
sents  the  truth,  but  the  knowledge  that  is  the  same  for 
every  one.  The  former,  which  the  sophists  considered 
*  knowledge,’  Socrates  held  to  be  only  ‘  opinion,’  and  de¬ 
clared  that  the  reason  men  think  so  differently  is  because 
they  see  but  one  side  of  the  truth,  and  do  not  understand 
the  significance  of  their  own  thoughts.  He  differed 
from  the  sophists,  then,  in  emphasizing  in  man  not  his 
mere  peculiarities,  as  tested  by  his  sensations,  impulses, 
and  feelings,  but  rather  his  rational,  and  so  universal, 
self. 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS)  l8l 


Socrates  also  believed  that  every  one  could  get  at 
this  universal  knowledge  by  stripping  off  the  individual 
differences  and  laying  bare  the  essentials  upon  which  all 
men  are  agreed.  He  conceived  it  to  be  the  mission  of 
the  true  philosopher  to  enable  the  individual  to  do  this, 
and,  accordingly,  he  endeavored  to  train  the  mind  of 
those  with  whom  he  came  in  contact,  so  that  they  could 
form  valid  conclusions.  He  felt  it  necessary  to  teach 
them  to  think  rather  than  load  them  with  ready-made 
information.  Realizing  that  the  ‘  pouring  in  ’  process  of 
the  sophists  in  their  lectures  could  never  be  effective, 
he  adopted  the  plan  of  development  through  informal 
conversation. 

This  method  of  Socrates  has  been  known  as  dia¬ 
lectic  (‘  conversational  ’),  and  was  twofold  in  nature. 
As  the  first  step,  Socrates  thought  it  necessary  to 
dispel  the  undue  assurance  of  the  person  he  was 
teaching  by  a  process  called  irony  (‘  dissembling  ’). 
He  encouraged  the  individual  to  make  a  definite 
statement  of  his  belief,  which  he  took  as  a  starting- 
point  in  the  search  for  truth.  Then,  through  a  set 
of  clever  questions,  he  caused  the  person  to  develop 
his  thought,  until  either  a  self-consistent  conclusion 
was  reached,  or  the  individual  became  so  involved  in 
manifest  contradictions  or  an  actual  reductio  ad  absnr- 
dum ,  that  he  was  forced  to  admit  that  his  view  had 
been  hastily  formed,  and  was  mere  ‘  opinion,’  after 


His  '  dia¬ 
lectic  ’ 
method : 
(i)  irony 


182 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


and 

(2)  maieutic. 


Moral  aim 
of  Socrates 
in  this  theory 
of  knowl¬ 
edge. 


Value  of 
his  method. 


all.1  In  the  latter  case,  the  person  was  put  in  the  proper 
frame  of  mind  to  continue  the  pursuit  of  truth.  In 
thus  developing  the  logical  implications  of  a  person’s 
position,  whether  they  led  out  to  truth  or  error,  he  used 
a  procedure  that  he  called  maieutic  (‘  midwifery  ’).  In 
this,  by  means  of  questions,  he  caused  the  individual  to 
see  that  the  opinion  he  had  first  expressed  was  but  a 
single  phase  of  the  universal  truth,  which  he  had  thus 
helped  him  to  develop  or  ‘give  birth  to.’ 

Through  this  method  of  developing  knowledge,  Soc¬ 
rates  strove  to  harmonize  the  individual  welfare  with 
that  of  the  social  group.  His  aim  was  not  so  much  to 
fit  the  individual  for  immediate  practical  success  as  to 
teach  him  how  to  live  with  his  fellows.  Accordingly,  he 
applied  his  doctrine  of  universal  knowledge  within  each 
person  especially  to  morals,  and  made  the  accomplish¬ 
ment  of  right  living  come  through  the  development  in 
consciousness  of  universal  truth.  He,  therefore,  made 
morality  consist  in  right  knowledge,  as  did  Plato  after 
him  ;  and  both  left  it  to  Aristotle  to  make  the  necessary 
distinction  between  the  knowledge  of  an  action  and  the 
impulse  to  perform  it. 

In  estimating  the  value  of  this  method  of  eliciting 
knowledge,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  it  would  work  well  in 
the  formulation  of  ethical  principles,1  since  this  is  within 

1  For  a  good  example,  read  the  account  of  his  interview  with  the  youthful 
and  ambitious  Euthydemus  in  Xenophon’s  Memorabilia,  Bk.  IV,  Chap.  II. 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS)  183 


the  reason  of  every  individual,  however  unlearned.  But 
it  should  also  be  noted  that  not  everything  was,  or  could 
be,  drawn  from  the  inner  consciousness  of  the  individual 
interrogated,  but  that  Socrates  himself  contributed  much 
to  the  progress  of  the  discussion.  Nevertheless,  this 
furnishing  of  content,  which  is  clearly  necessary  in  all 
studies  that  are  not  purely  schematic,  does  not  interfere 
with  the  value  of  the  Socratic  method  for  efficient 
teaching.  If  a  method  arouses  and  holds  the  interest 
of  the  pupil,  he  may,  without  losing  an  iota  of  mental 
activity,  be  told  many  facts  outright  along  the  lines 
upon  which  his  curiosity  has  been  excited,  especially 
if  he  cannot  be  expected  to  know  them.1  The  So¬ 
cratic  method  contains  the  germ  idea  of  all  modern 
pedagogy. 

But  however  valid  the  view  of  Socrates,  it  resulted  in 
the  death  of  its  promulgator.  He  was  hated  alike  by 
the  individualistic  sophists,  whose  shallow  and  negative 
opinions  he  was  continually  exposing,  and  by  the  con¬ 
servative  believers  in  the  old  traditions  and  institutional 
morality,  who  felt  that  Socrates  was  atheistic  and  im¬ 
moral,  and  the  most  dangerous  among  the  sophists. 
Through  the  traditionalists,  Athens  was  persuaded  to 
give  him  the  hemlock;  and  thus  destroyed  the  man  that 

1  This,  however,  does  not  seem  to  be  understood  by  those  educators  who 
state,  or  imply  by  their  practice,  that  it  is  wrong  to  furnish  the  pupil  with 
any  information  whatsoever,  under  the  impression  that  by  the  Socratic 
method  he  should  ‘  discover  ’  everything  for  himself. 


Results  of 
the  Socratic 
teaching. 


184 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Plato  and 
his  philos¬ 
ophy. 


might  have  been  her  savior.1  The  spirit  of  Socrates, 
however,  continued  to  live,  and  what  he  saw  but  dimly 
became  clearer  as  time  went  on.  While  it  was  too  late 
to  redeem  Athens,  his  vision  remained  a  great  force  in 
the  progress  of  thought. 

Plato. — The  rather  vague  formulations  of  Socrates 
were  accepted  by  his  pupil,  Plato.  Like  many  others, 
such  as  the  Cynics  and  Cyrenaics,  who  made  the  most 
diverse  interpretations  from  the  somewhat  inchoate 
statements  of  this  master,  Plato  attempted  to  develop 
the  thought  of  Socrates.  He  desired  to  build  upon  it 
a  complete  and  fixed  system  for  society,  and  thus  arrest 
the  disintegration  that  was  going  on.  He  continued  the 
work  of  Socrates,2  but  modified  it  in  some  important 
respects.  To  understand  how  this  occurred  will  require 
a  brief  account  of  Plato’s  life  and  work. 

Plato  (427-347  B.c.)  differed  greatly  in  his  attitude 
toward  life  from  the  democratic  Socrates.  He  was  by 
birth  and  temperament  a  natural  aristocrat;  and  never 
mingled  indiscriminately  with  all  people,  as  did  his 
teacher.  He  was  not,  however,  out  of  sympathy  with 
the  masses,  but  his  social  position  may  have  affected  his 
estimate  of  their  intelligence.  After  the  death  of  Soc- 

1  See  Plato’s  Apology,  which  gives  Socrates’  estimate  of  the  causes  of 
his  accusation  and  condemnation. 

2  In  fact,  Plato  represents  Socrates  as  the  chief  expounder  in  practically 
all  his  dialogues,  except  The  Lazos. 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS)  185 


rates,  he  left  the  state,  and,  becoming  better  acquainted 
through  travel  with  the  various  philosophic  movements 
of  the  times,  he  not  only  enlarged  the  character  of  his 
master’s  ethical  teachings,  but  greatly  broadened  the 
scope  of  philosophy  itself.  Thus  he  came  to  plan  an 
ideal  state  in  which  there  should  be  more  exalted  prin¬ 
ciples,  and  practice  should  be  in  harmony  with  the 
highest  possible  theory. 

The  Republic.  — Plato’s  description  of  the  ideal  state 
is  found  especially  in  that  one  of  his  dialogues  known 
as  The  Republic .  In  this  work,  he  starts  with  the 
avowed  object  of  investigating  the  nature  of  justice. 
Finding  it  difficult  to  analyze  in  the  case  of  the  indi¬ 
vidual,  he  proposes  to  examine  it  on  a  larger  scale  in 
the  state  as  a  whole.1  To  accomplish  this,  he  under¬ 
takes  to  describe  the  evolution  of  a  model  state  and 
the  relations  between  its  inhabitants.  He  shows  I10W7  in 
society,  one  industry  or  occupation  after  another  is  dif¬ 
ferentiated  until  a  special  class  known  as  ‘  guardians  ’ 
is  set  aside  to  protect  the  state  and  add  to  its  territory. 

These  guardians  are  to  be  separated  from  the  indus¬ 
trial  classes  on  the  basis  of  physical  prowess  and  their 
intellectual  and  moral  endowments,  and  to  be  given  a 
suitable  education.  Apparently  he  assumes  that  those 
who  are  incapable  of  becoming  guardians  should  not 
receive  any  education  beyond  apprenticeship.  In  de- 

1  Bk.  II,  368. 


Evolution  of 
classes  in  the 
model  state. 


Elementary 
education  to 
be  similar  to 
that  in  vogue, 
but  with 
important 
reforms. 


1 86  A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

scribing  the  course  of  study  that  the  guardians  are  to 
take  first,  Plato  naturally  follows  the  education  in  vogue 
for  boys  up  to  eighteen  years  of  age,  in  the  home  and 
at  the  palaestra,  didascaleum,  and  gymnasium  at  Athens, 
but  even  here,  at  the  start,  he  would  undertake  social 
regulation,  and  insists  upon  some  rather  important  re¬ 
forms.  “  Our  first  duty,”  he  says,  “  will  be  to  exercise 
a  censorship  over  the  authors  of  fables,  selecting  their 
good  productions,  and  rejecting  the  bad.  And  the 
selected  fables  we  shall  advise  our  nurses  and  mothers 
to  repeat  to  their  children,  that  they  may  thus  mold 
their  minds  with  the  fables,  even  more  than  they  shape 
their  bodies  with  the  hand.”1  So  he  claims  that  the 
literary  element  of  the  home  and  school  training  should 
be  purified  of  all  accounts  that  lower  the  character  and 
dignity  of  the  gods  or  the  heroes  of  the  past,  or  that 
would  tend  to  create  a  fear  of  death.  Likewise,  music 
should  be  confined  to  the  simple  patriotic  and  religious 
melodies  of  the  Dorians,  and  to  instruments  that  are 
not  difficult  to  play.  In  the  matter  of  gymnastic  train¬ 
ing,  temperate  living  should  be  included ;  and  it  should 
be  a  moral,  rather  than  a  physical  discipline,  since  “  the 
two  arts  of  music  and  gymnastics  are  not  really  de¬ 
signed,  the  one  for  the  training  of  the  soul,  the  other 
for  the  training  of  the  body,  but  the  teachers  of  both 
have  in  view  chiefly  the  improvement  of  the  soul.”2 

1  Bk.  II,  377. 


2  Bk.  Ill,  410. 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS)  187 


From  this  group  of  guardians  are  eventually  to  be 
selected  the  ablest  and  most  prudent  as  magistrates  of 
the  state.  The  rest  are  to  be  regarded  as  their  auxili¬ 
aries.  This  division  is  to  be  determined  upon  while 
the  guardians  are  passing  through  the  ephebic  or  cadet 
period  of  education  that  was  customary  in  Athens 1  be¬ 
tween  eighteen  and  twenty.  They  are  to  live  in  camp 
in  a  frugal  and  hardy  way,  enforce  the  laws,  and  repel 
the  enemies  of  the  state,  if  necessary.2  Those  who  show 
themselves  capable  of  further  education  are  to  be 
selected  for  magistrates,  while  the  others  are  to  be 
relegated  to  the  auxiliary  class. 

At  this  point3  Plato  seems  to  have  completed  his 
search  for  justice  in  the  state  as  a  whole.  This  virtue, 
he  declares,  exists  for  the  state,  when  each  class  attends 
to  its  own  business ;  when  the  magistrates,  in  whom  is 
the  wisdom  of  the  state,  guide  both  the  auxiliaries  or 
soldiery,  who  possess  the  courage  and  so  defend  the  state, 
and  the  industrial  class,  whose  only  virtue  is  temper¬ 
ance  and  whose  function  is  to  produce.  This  arrange¬ 
ment  he  now  claims  to  verify  by  comparing  the  state 
to  the  individual,  declaring  that  justice  exists  in  the 
individual  when  his  reason,  located  in  the  head,  which 
corresponds  to  the  magistrates  in  the  state,  controls  his 
spirit,  lodged  in  the  breast,  and  his  passions,  seated  in 

1  See  pp.  167-168.  2  Bk.  Ill,  415-417. 

3  Bk.  IV. 


Secondary 
education 
by  means 
of  cadet 
training. 


Analogy  of 
the  state 
with  the 
individual. 


Rule  of  the 
philosophers 
is  necessary. 


Higher  edu¬ 
cation  for  the 
philosophers, 


1 88  A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

the  abdomen,  whose  counterparts  are  the  military  and 
industrial  classes  respectively. 

Plato’s  proposition,  then,  as  he  soon  makes  more  ex¬ 
plicit,  is  to  intrust  the  entire  control  of  the  government 
to  the  magistrates,  whom  he  now  calls  ‘philosophers,’  for 
“Until  philosophers  are  kings,  or  the  kings  and  princes 
of  this  world  be  imbued  with  a  sufficient  measure  of  gen¬ 
uine  philosophy,  —  that  is,  unless  political  power  and  phi¬ 
losophy  be  united  in  the  same  person,  .  . .  there  will  be  no 
deliverance  for  cities  nor  yet  for  the  human  race;  neither 
can  the  commonwealth  that  we  have  now  sketched  in 
theory  ever  till  then  grow  into  a  possibility,  and  see  the 
light  of  day.”1  This  class  alone  is  capable  of  abstract 
thinking,  and  so  possesses  real  knowledge  or  universal 
truth,  while  the  other  classes  content  themselves  with 
mere  opinion.  This  real  knowledge  Plato  describes  as 
coming  to  the  philosophers  through  a  vision  of  the 
‘ideas,’2  which  he  depicts  as  existing  outside  conscious¬ 
ness  in  a  world  by  themselves  and  as  being  the  arche¬ 
types  from  which  all  visible  objects  are  molded.3 

The  philosophic  class,  therefore,  requires  an  educa¬ 
tion  that  will  enable  them  to  acquire  the  habit  of  specu- 

1  Bk.  V,  473. 

2  Elsewhere  (. Phadrus ,  246  ff .,  Meno ,  80  ff.,  etc.)  he  more  fully  develops 
this  doctrine.  He  holds  that  in  a  previous  existence  the  soul  lived  in  the 
incorporeal  world  and  beheld  the  ‘  ideas/  or  pure  forms  of  reality,  and  that 
a  ‘  recollection  ’  of  this  vision  is  produced  by  a  perception  of  similar  corpo¬ 
real  things  for  those  in  whom  the  philosophic  impulse  exists.  3Bk.  VI. 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS)  189 


lative  thinking,  or,  in  Plato’s  terms,  “  will  turn  the  eye 
of  the  soul  from  the  sensuous  to  the  real.”  So  Plato  is 
now  obliged  to  invent  a  new  course  of  study  for  the 
purpose,  as  Greek  education  did  not  extend  beyond  the 
ephebic  period  or  the  twentieth  year.  This  additional 
course,  he  declares,  shall  also  be  graded,  in  order  that  a 
further  test  of  intellectual  and  moral  qualities  may  be 
made.  Arithmetic,  plane  and  solid  geometry,  music, 
and  astronomy,  are  to  occupy  the  first  ten  years  of  the 
course.  These  subjects,  however,  are  not  to  be  studied 
for  calculation  or  practical  purposes  of  any  sort,  but 
entirely  from  the  standpoint  of  theory  or  the  universal 
relations  underlying  them,  since  only  thus  can  they  fur¬ 
nish  a  capacity  for  abstract  thought  or  a  vision  of  the 
ideas.1  After  this,  at  thirty,  those  who  show  themselves 
capable  of  the  study  of  *  real  existence,’  or  dialectic,  go 
on  with  this  subject  for  five  years  longer.  It  then 
becomes  the  duty  of  these  highest  philosophers  to  go 
out  into  society  and  guide  it  until  they  have  reached 
the  age  of  fifty,  when  they  are  to  be  allowed  to  retire.2 
Their  remaining  days  are  to  be  spent  in  study  and 
reflection,  which  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  highest  life 
of  all.3 

1  Bk.  VII,  522-531.  This  seems  to  be  the  beginning  of  the  theory  of 
*  formal  discipline.’  Plato’s  contention  is  that  the  precision  of  mathe¬ 
matics  would  train  one  to  be  exact  in  judgment  about  practical  affairs  in 
general.  See  p.  196. 

2  Bk.  VII,  532-534.  3  Bk.  VII,  539-540. 


consisting  of 
arithmetic, 
geometry, 
music,  and 
astronomy ; 


and  of  dia¬ 
lectic  for 
the  most 
capable. 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Education  of 
women 
similar  to 
that  of 
men. 


How  Plato 
differed  from 
Socrates. 


190 

In  this  state,  as  Plato  shows  in  a  digression1  from 
the  main  narrative,  women  are  to  receive  a  similar  edu¬ 
cation  to  that  of  the  men,  even  to  the  extent  of  wres¬ 
tling  unclad  in  the  palaestra.  This  is  because  women 
are  to  have  the  same  functions  in  the  state  as  men. 
“  In  the  administration  of  the  state  neither  a  woman  as 
a  woman,  nor  a  man  as  a  man,  has  any  special  function, 
but  the  gifts  of  nature  are  equally  diffused  in  both  sexes ; 
all  the  pursuits  of  men  are  the  pursuits  of  women  also, 
and  in  all  of  them  a  woman  is  only  a  weaker  man.” 
Women,  then,  are  also  to  be  philosophers,  soldiers,  or 
workers  according  to  their  ability.  In  order  that  they 
may  be  freed  from  the  cares  of  housekeeping  and  mother¬ 
hood,  all  living  is  to  be  in  common,1  and  the  children  that 
are  born  are  to  be  reared  in  a  state  nursery,  unless  they 
are  undesirable,  when  they  are  to  be  exposed. 

Criticism  of  The  Republic.  —  In  examining  this  ideal 
republic,  it  is  first  to  be  noted  that  Plato  hardened  the 
distinction  which  Socrates  made  between  opinion  and 
real  knowledge ;  and,  by  a  new  interpretation,  gave  the 
latter  an  existence  of  its  own  outside  of  consciousness. 
Also,  where  Socrates,  who  constantly  mingled  with  the 
people,  found  the  basis  of  this  universal  truth  in  every 
one,  Plato,  possibly  influenced  by  his  aristocratic  tend¬ 
encies,  and  by  his  contact  with  the  Pythagorean  com- 

1  Bk.  V  as  far  as  473,  which  contains  his  argument  for  community  in 
wives,  children,  and  property. 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS) 


munity,  declared  that  only  one  class  of  people,  —  the 
most  intellectual,  could  attain  to  a  vision  of  the  ideas,  or 
real  knowledge.  And  since,  like  Socrates,  he  failed  to 
discriminate  between  the  cognitive  and  volitional,  and 
so  identified  knowledge  with  virtue,  it  seemed  to  him 
that  the  philosophers  should  guide  the  conduct  of  all. 
Hence  his  ideal  state  became  a  sort  of  socialistic  aris¬ 
tocracy  or  oligarchy  of  intelligence,  and,  in  a  way, 
seems  to  be  a  return  to  the  old  principle  of  subordinat¬ 
ing  the  individual  to  the  state. 

Certainly  in  his  desire  to  overcome  the  baneful  effects 
of  the  extreme  individualism  of  the  times,  Plato  tended 
to  depreciate  the  products  of  democracy  in  Athens. 
Nor  could  he  realize  that,  while  under  a  government  of 
this  sort  there  are  abuses  to  be  guarded  against,  and  it 
takes  a  long  time  for  the  average  person  to  reach  the 
level  of  the  most  intelligent,  yet  progress,  though  slow 
and  uncertain,  is  sure,  and  is  accompanied  by  no  Water¬ 
loo  defeats.1  In  some  specific  details  also  Plato  seems 
to  have  been  unable  to  rise  above  the  most  conservative 
thought  of  his  times.  He  permits  slavery,  and  provides 
no  education  for  the  industrial  class;  family  life  is 
abandoned ;  and  he  sanctions  outright  the  cruel  practice 
of  exposing  children. 

1  Plato  feels,  however,  that  while  his  republic  is  difficult  of  institution, 
so  much  so  that  it  may  have  to  be  established  by  force  ( Republic ,  VII, 
540),  when  once  it  has  been  put  into  effect  it  will  never  be  overthrown 
( Critias ,  pp.  120-121).  See  also  pp.  192-193. 


Aristocratic 
and  con¬ 
servative 
tendencies 
in  Plato. 


192 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Progressive 
features  of 
The  Republic . 


Why  The 
Republic 
had  no 
immediate 
effect  upon 
education. 


Yet  The  Republic  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  reversion. 
The  scheme  advocated  at  least  enables  each  individual 
to  do  that  for  which  he  is  by  nature  best  fitted ;  and, 
while  he  is  to  be  pushed  into  his  niche  in  life,  rather 
than  allowed  to  find  it,  to  some  extent  self-realization  is 
made  compatible  with  social  service.  Moreover,  the 
reason  for  allowing  a  special  training  and  control  to  one 
class  is  not  mere  enjoyment  or  gratification  of  despotism, 
but  because  this  form  of  government  and  this  educa¬ 
tion  are  considered  necessary  to  enable  all  classes  to 
fulfill  the  function  for  which  they  are  best  fitted.  And 
although  women  are  to  serve  the  interests  of  the  state 
without  regard  to  their  own  desires,  they  are  not  held 
to  be  either  the  slaves  or  the  toys  of  men,  and 
are  allowed  the  same  education  as  far  as  they  can 
take  it. 

But,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  while  most  inspiring,  and  of 
the  greatest  importance  to  the  development  of  thought 
in  the  long  run,  The  Republic  had  practically  no  imme¬ 
diate  effect  upon  education  or  any  other  institution  of 
Athens.  It  was  regarded  as  the  visionary  conception 
of  a  great  mind  removed  from  the  life  of  the  times. 
Instead  of  taking  cognizance  of  the  actual  conditions 
of  society,  it  was  artificially,  though  very  poetically, 
based  upon  a  false  analogy.  Society  is  not  an  organ¬ 
ism  like  the  human  body,  and  the  members  of  it  cannot 
be  knitted  together  in  such  a  way  as  to  become  one. 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS) 


193 


The  Republic  quite  neglects  human  will1  as  a  factor 
in  society,  and  assumes  that  men  can  be  moved  about 
in  life  like  pieces  upon  the  chessboard.  Plato  fails  to 
see,  too,  that  each  individual  really  possesses  all  human 
characteristics.  The  artisans  have  reason,  and  the 
philosophers  have  appetite.  A  human  being  is  not  a 
man  unless  all  these  function  in  him.  But  even  if  all 
this  were  the  case,  the  treatise  provides  no  way  for 
an  evolution  from  the  current  conditions,  but  plunges 
society  immediately  into  the  new  regime.  Plato  makes 
Socrates  say  that,  while  this  scheme  may  not  be  fea¬ 
sible,  the  object  is  to  have  society  approach  it  as  nearly 
as  possible,  and  this  can  be  achieved  by  the  one  change 
of  giving  all  control  to  the  philosophers.  He  does  not, 
however,  make  it  clear  how  this  step  can  be  brought 
about,  except  to  say  that  every  one  above  the  age  of 
ten  must  somehow  be  removed  from  the  city.2  And  if 
it  be  further  granted  that  this  order  of  things  could  be 
established  at  once,  Plato  puts  the  ban  upon  all  innova¬ 
tion  or  change,  and  so  closes  the  door  to  progress. 

The  Laws.  —  In  fact,  despite  the  suggestions  in  this  Reversion  to 
perfected  order  of  affairs,  social  disorder  steadily  con- 
tinued  to  increase,  and  Plato  himself  eventually  realized 
that  The  Republic  was  impracticable,  and  that  society 

1  For  the  place  of  will  in  Plato’s  psychology,  see  Mary  Hay  Wood’s 
thesis  on  Plato's  Psychology  in  Its  Bearing  on  the  Development  of  Will 
(London,  1907).  2  Bk.  VII,  541.  See,  however,  footnote  on  p.  191,, 


o 


194 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


How  Plato 
has  in¬ 
fluenced 
thought  and 
practice  in 
general. 


could  be  reformed  only  through  the  forces  that  built 
it.  So  in  his  declining  years,1  without  denying  The 
Republic  as  ideal,  he  wrote  the  dialogue  known  as 
The  Laws ,  which  was  almost  as  much  of  a  reversion 
to  old  traditions  and  ideals  as  the  doctrine  of  Pythag¬ 
oras  or  the  theology  of  ^Eschylus.  In  it  he  welded 
together  elements  from  the  educational  systems  of 
Sparta  and  older  Athens.  He  replaced  the  archetypal 
ideas  of  The  Republic  with  a  pantheon  of  astronomical 
gods ;  the  philosophers  were  supplanted  by  the  priests 
of  these  gods,  an  hereditary  ruler,  a  superintendent  of 
education,  and  various  other  officials ;  their  mystic  vision 
of  the  ideas  gave  way  to  intelligence  or  common  sense  ; 
and  the  course  of  study  reached  its  height  with  the  sub¬ 
ject  of  mathematics,  while  dialectic  was  not  mentioned. 

Influence  of  Plato.  —  Thus  the  efforts  of  Socrates,  as 
continued  by  Plato,  to  obtain  the  benefit  of  the  growing 
individualism  for  society  and  education  without  disrupt¬ 
ing  them,  had  seemingly  come  to  naught.  Neverthe¬ 
less,  Plato  has  had  considerable  influence  upon  the 
thought  and  practice  of  men  since  the  Greek  period. 
The  ideal  society,  where  everything  is  well  managed 
and  every  one  is  in  the  position  for  which  nature 
intended  him,  has  ever  since  the  day  of  The  Republic 
been  a  favorite  theme  for  writers,  as  witness  the  Utopia 


1  The  Laws  is  generally  considered  to  be  the  last  dialogue  written  by 
Plato,  but  this  is  questioned  by  some  authorities. 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS)  195 


of  More,  Bacon’s  New  Atlantis,  and  the  more  modern 
Looking  Backward  of  Bellamy.  At  times,  more  or  less 
disastrous  attempts  to  realize  these  ideals  have  been 
made,  as  in  the  case  of  Brook  Farm,  the  Oneida  Per¬ 
fectionists,  and  a  variety  of  socialistic  and  communistic 
colonies.  However,  even  if  impracticable  for  the  time, 
an  ideal  may  yet  be  of  value,  as  Plato  intimated,  if  it 
affords  us  an  advanced  goal  for  our  efforts.  On  the 
other  hand,  while  Plato’s  comparison  of  the  state  to  a 
human  organism  has  in  some  ways  proved  most  illumi¬ 
nating  for  writers  on  social  subjects,  like  Hobbes  and 
Spencer,  it  has  led  them  into  strange  fallacies,  and  is 
responsible  for  such  phrases  to-day  as  ‘  social  body,’ 
‘body  politic,’  or  ‘social  organism,’  and  the  various 
scientific  and  philosophic  errors  that  have  grown  out 
of  such  implications. 

In  more  specific  movements  Plato  has  also  left  his 
impress  upon  the  world  of  thought.  The  contempla¬ 
tive  life  of  the  philosophers,  removed  from  the  organi¬ 
zation  of  the  state,  but  inspiring  and  controlling  it, 
as  depicted  in  The  Republic,  and  afterward  made  more 
definite  through  the  ‘  intellectual  virtue  ’  commended  by 
Aristotle,  was  the  progenitor  of  a  variety  of  extra-social 
schools  of  philosophy.  These  in  their  turn  prepared  the 
way  for  an  understanding  of  the  mission  of  Christianity, 
when  it  was  established,  as  an  institution  outside  the 
state,  but  endeavoring  to  bring  the  latter  up  to  its  own 


More  specific 
influence  of 
Plato : 


upon 

Christianity, 
monasticism, 
mysticism, 
and  mediae¬ 
val  realism ; 


196 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


and  upon  the 
monastic 
course  of 
study,  and 
the  doctrine 
of  *  formal 
discipline.’ 


loftier  ideals.  So,  too,  the  regimen  recommended  for 
these  isolated  philosophers,  together  with  a  similar  prac¬ 
tice  among  the  Jews  and  in  the  discipline  of  Pythagoras, 
may  be  held  somewhat  responsible  for  ‘  monasticism  ’ 
and  ‘  asceticism  ’  in  mediaeval  times.  It  is  also  apparent 
that  the  doctrine  of  *  mysticism,’  which  started  in  the 
early  Church,  but  has  somewhat  survived  in  present-day 
theology,  is  a  revival  of  the  mystic  vision  of  the  ideas, 
which  was  retained  in  Neoplatonism.  Likewise,  the 
notion  of  the  ideas  as  the  ‘  real  ’  things  was  adopted 
by  Anselm  and  other  mediaeval  realists,  and  died  hard 
before  the  onslaught  of  nominalism  and  conceptualism. 
Again,  in  the  matter  of  content,  Plato’s  approval  of  the 
music,  arithmetic,  geometry,  and  astronomy  of  Pythag¬ 
oras,  and  his  adoption  of  dialectic  from  Socrates,  when 
combined  with  the  grammar  and  rhetoric  of  the  soph¬ 
ists,  furnished  the  monastic  schools  with  their  trivium 
and  quadrivium .  Possibly,  too,  it  may  be  held  that  the 
whole  notion  of  ‘  liberal  ’  studies,  and  so  the  doctrine  of 
‘formal  discipline,’  reaffirmed  especially  by  Locke,  goes 
back  to  Plato’s  idea  that  the  subjects  in  the  special 
course  for  philosophers  should  never  be  studied  from 
a  practical  point  of  view;  but  Aristotle’s  claim  in  his 
Politics  that  professional  skill  should  never  be  attained 
in  music  or  other  subjects,  and  particularly  his  division 
of  the  mind  into  faculties  in  his  Psychology ,  seem  more 
clearly  the  ancestors  of  this  long-lived  educational  error. 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS)  197 


As  a  whole,  it  is  evident  that  Plato  has  been  a  factor 
in  educational  theory  and  practice  that  cannot  be  over¬ 
looked,  and  The  Republic  will  always  remain  a  master¬ 
piece  of  general  literature  and  a  great  educational 
classic,  even  though  both  his  theoretical  and  practical 
treatises  failed  to  harmonize  individualism  with  the  old 
traditions. 

Aristotle.  —  A  more  practical  attempt  to  unify  the  new 
with  the  old  in  Greek  society  and  education  was  made 
by  Aristotle  (386-322  b.c.),  the  pupil,  and  later  the  rival, 
of  Plato.  He  came  to  Athens  from  Macedon,  where 
his  father  was  the  court  physician.  Partly  from  his 
father  and  the  scientific  schools  of  Macedon,  but  more 
from  his  study  under  Plato  in  Athens,  he  obtained  an 
excellent  training,  which  is  observable  in  the  way  he 
approaches  his  problems.  Fortunately,  the  lectures  of 
Aristotle  survive  in  his  treatises,  as  he  spent  his  literary 
activities  in  preserving  his  notes  in  the  form  of  books, 
instead  of  writing  dialogues  as  did  Plato.  In  conse¬ 
quence,  while  his  works  lack  the  imagery  and  polish  of 
Plato,  they  treat  their  subjects  much  more  systematically. 

Aristotle  waited  until  his  ideas  were  fully  matured 
before  beginning  to  put  them  into  final  form,  as  he 
intended  to  maintain  a  consistent  point  of  view  through¬ 
out  a  complete  system  of  thought.  This  encyclopaedic 
work  could  not  be  finished  within  the  dozen  years  of 
life  left  to  him,  and  many  of  the  treatises  he  wrote  have 


Aristotle’s 
life  and 
works. 


198 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


The  sum- 
mum  bonum 
is  activity 
of  soul  in 
accordance 
with  virtue. 


since  been  lost,  but  sufficient  material  has  come  down  to 
us  to  mark  him  as  one  of  the  greatest  minds  the  world 
has  ever  known.  He  gave  the  first  real  impulse  to 
biology,  physiology,  physics,  mechanics,  and  psychology; 
his  Poetics  was  the  first  attempt  at  a  science  of  aesthetics  ; 
and  his  treatises  on  logic,  metaphysics,  ethics,  and  poli¬ 
tics  hold  their  own  among  the  greatest  works  ever  pro¬ 
duced  on  the  subjects. 

The  Ethics  and  The  Politics.  —  Aristotle’s  ideas  on  edu¬ 
cation  are  contained  in  The  Ethics  and  The  Politics ,  the 
one  describing  how  the  individual  must  discipline  himself 
in  life,  and  the  other,  what  social  and  economic  conditions 
in  the  state  are  most  favorable  for  reaching  this  end. 
In  The  Ethics  he  begins  by  inquiring  what  is  the  greatest 
good  or  the  ‘  end  ’  of  human  action,  and  declares  that, 
while  practically  all  men  hold  that  this  end  is  4  happi¬ 
ness,’  1  they  differ  greatly  in  the  content  they  assign  to 
the  term,  and  that  it  should,  therefore,  be  more  carefully 
analyzed.  He  then  continues:  — 

“  Probably  the  best  way  to  arrive  at  a  definition  will 
be  to  ascertain  what  is  the  peculiar  function  of  man, 
for,  as  with  a  flute-player,  sculptor,  or  artisan,  and,  in 
fact,  any  one  who  has  a  definite  function  or  course  of 
action,  his  goodness  or  excellence  seems  to  lie  in  this 
function,  so  it  would  seem  to  be  with  man,  if  he  has  a 

1  I.e.  eudaimonia  (‘good  fortune’),  from  which  a  school  of  ethical 
philosophy  called  ‘  eudsemonism  ’  is  derived. 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS) 


199 


definite  function.  .  .  .  What,  then,  can  this  peculiar 
function  of  man  be  ?  It  is  not  mere  life,  for  apparently 
man  has  life  in  common  with  the  plants,  and  we  must, 
therefore,  exclude  nutrition  and  growth.  Next,  there  is 
also  sensation ;  but  this,  too,  man  appears  to  share  with 
horses,  cattle,  and  all  other  lower  animals.  There 
remains,  then,  what  may  be  called  the  practical  life  of 
a  being  which  possesses  rationality.  But  this  rationality 
has  a  twofold  meaning ;  it  is  rational  partly  in  the  sense 
of  being  obedient  to  reason,  and  partly  in  the  sense  of 
exercising  reason  and  intelligence.  This  practical  life 
may,  accordingly,  be  spoken  of  in  two  ways,  —  (from  the 
standpoint  of  habit  or  activity),  but  the  life  of  activity 
seems  to  be  the  better  way  to  conceive  of  it.  The  func¬ 
tion  of  man,  then,  is  activity  of  soul  in  accordance  with 
reason,  or  at  least  not  independent  of  reason.  More¬ 
over,  it  has  been  seen  that  the  functions  of  a  certain 
person  and  of  such  a  person  when  he  is  good  in  his 
subject,  are  the  same  in  kind,  so  that  his  excellence 
is  only  a  goodness  in  addition  to  his  function;  for 
example,  it  is  the  function  of  the  harpist  to  play  the 
harp,  and  of  a  good  harpist  to  play  it  well.  So  if  the  func¬ 
tion  of  a  man  is  activity  of  the  soul  in  accordance  with 
reason,  and  of  a  good  man  it  is  such  activity  of  a  good 
and  noble  kind,  it  must  be  true  that  the  greatest  good  of 
man  is  activity  of  soul  in  accordance  with  virtue.” 1 

1  Bk.  I,  Chap.  VII,  §§  8-12. 


200 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


The  soul  is 
rational  and 
irrational, 
and  the 
virtues  are 
intellectual 
and  moral. 


Moral  virtue 
is  tested  by 
the  ‘  relative 
mean.’ 


Having  come  to  this  conclusion,  Aristotle  finds  it 
necessary  to  analyze  ‘soul’  and  ‘virtue.’  The  soul  he 
separates  into  two  parts,  —  the  irrational  and  rational. 
The  former  of  these  is  then  divided  into  nutrition  and 
growth,  which  are  completely  without  reason,  and  the 
impulses  and  desires,  which  may  or  may  not  be  con¬ 
trolled  by  reason.  In  so  far  as  they  do  yield  to 
reason,  they  are  to  be  classed  with  the  rational  part  of 
the  soul.  Similarly,  virtues  are  to  be  distinguished  as 
intellectual,  such  as  wisdom,  intelligence,  and  pru¬ 
dence,  which  belong  to  the  rational  soul,  and  as  ‘  moral,’ 
such  as  liberality  and  temperance,  where  the  desires  are 
controlled  by  reason,  and  right  action  has  arisen  from 
habit. 

The  moral  virtues  are  discussed  before  the  intellectual, 
since  the  formation  of  moral  habits  is  regarded  as  the 
first  step  toward  the  unimpeded  activity  of  the  reason, 
and  so  to  the  attainment  of  the  higher  or  intellectual 
virtues.  While  man  by  nature  does  not  possess  these 
moral  virtues,  he  may  in  early  life  be  impressed  by 
instruction  and  form  moral  habits  through  repeated 
acts  of  obedience.  The  rational  principle  that  is  to  be 
applied  by  the  trainer  of  the  child  in  the  formation  of 
moral  habits  is  found  in  Aristotle’s  ‘  relative  mean.’ 
According  to  this  doctrine,  an  impulse  becomes  a  virtue, 
if  held  to  the  mean  and  so  compelled  to  avoid  the  ex¬ 
tremes  of  excess  and  deficiency.  For  example,  — 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS) 


201 


“  He  who  flees  and  is  afraid  of  everything,  becomes 
a  coward ;  while  he  who  fears  nothing  at  all,  but 
goes  boldly  against  everything,  becomes  rash.  In  like 
manner,  he  who  indulges  in  the  enjoyment  of  every 
pleasure  and  refrains  from  none  is  intemperate,  but 
he  who  shuns  all,  as  do  the  dull  and  boorish,  becomes 
an  insensate  sort  of  person.”1 

In  this  same  way  he  discusses  at  length  all  the 
other  virtues.  Intellectual  virtue,  then,  which  belongs 
to  the  rational  soul  proper,  is  the  outgrowth  of  moral 
virtue,  and  the  possession  of  it  has  in  turn  the  function 
of  determining  the  relative  mean,  the  observance  of 
which  characterizes  moral  virtue.  The  highest  of  all 
virtues,  therefore,  is  that  of  the  speculative  life,  which 
is  found  in  the  philosopher.  This  virtue  is  declared 
in  the  last  book  to  be  that  of  the  gods,  for  they  cannot 
be  supposed  to  demean  themselves  with  any  other 
activity  than  speculation.  The  philosopher,  therefore, 
is  nearest  to  the  gods,  who  are  preeminently  happy, 
and  is  also  most  beloved  by  them  on  that  account.2 
But  moral  virtue,  which  is  secondary,  can  be  attained 
by  all  persons,  even  those  who  are  not  capable  of 
becoming  philosophers. 

Aristotle  thus  makes  virtue  consist  primarily  in 
bringing  the  impulses  into  harmony  with  reason,  and 
finds  the  idea  not  in  a  supersensuous  world,  but  within 

1  Bk.  II,  Chap.  II,  §§  5-6. 


Philosophic 
speculation 
is  the  highest 
of  all  virtues. 


How  Aris¬ 
totle  differed 
from  Plato. 


2  Bk.  X,  Chap.  VIII,  §§  8  and  19-20. 


202 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


The  Politics 
continues 
The  Ethics. 


the  experience  of  all.  In  this  way  he  welds  the  dualism 
that  Plato  created  between  sensation  and  reason.  So, 
too,  The  Ethics  erases  the  division  line  between  theory 
and  practice  that  seems  to  exist  in  The  Republic, 
although  Plato  maintains  that  the  two  should  never 
be  separated.1  While  with  Aristotle,  as  with  Socrates, 
the  greatest  good  is  virtue,  with  the  former  this  does 
not  consist  merely  in  knowledge,  but  in  a  tendency  to 
express  one’s  self  in  rational  action.  Even  the  highest 
intellectual  virtue  or  speculation,  although  it  seems  to 
be  clearly  connected  with  the  vision  of  the  universal 
truth  in  Plato,  is  the  result  of  activity,  fpr  philosophy 
is  not  held  to  make  one  virtuous,  except  as  he  puts 
it  into  practice.  Aristotle  thus  unites  theory  and 
practice  by  making  clearer  the  distinction  between 
the  cognitive  and  the  conative  or  volitional  aspects  of 
consciousness. 

Aristotle,  however,  saw  that  the  moral  excellence 
of  the  individual  can  be  reached  only  in  the  life  of 
the  community.  “The  state,”  said  he  in  The  Politics, 
“  is  a  creation  of  nature,  and  man  is  by  nature  a  political 
animal.  ...  He  who  is  unable  to  live  in  society,  or  who 
has  no  need  because  he  is  sufficient  for  himself,  must 

1  See  p.  193*  Aristotle  holds  that  real  existence  is  not  separate  from 
the  phenomenal  world,  but  finds  its  realization  in  it.  His  doctrine  of 
*  entelechy  ’  (entelecheia)  is  this  self-realization  of  the  essence  ( dynamis ) 
in  the  actual  ( energeia ). 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS)  203 

be  something  more  or  less  than  a  man, — either  a  god 
or  a  beast;  he  is  no  part  of  a  state.  A  social  instinct 
is  implanted  in  all  men  by  nature.”1  So  Aristotle’s 
Ethics  should  be  regarded  as  introductory  to,  though 
correlative  with,  his  Politics. 

In  this  second  work  he  discusses  first  the  origin 
and  meaning  of  a  *  state  ’  and  a  ‘  citizen.’  He  shows  that 
the  state  grew  out  of  material  needs,  but  is  continued 
for  the  sake  of  the  life  of  reason.  Nevertheless,  he 
defends  slavery  in  the  state  on  the  ground  that  some 
races  are  so  inferior  by  nature  as  practically  to  be 
born  slaves ;  and  holds  that  the  industrial  classes  should 
be  excluded  from  citizenship,  since  they  have  no  leisure 
in  which  to  practice  virtue  or  perform  political  duties. 
Here,  also,  before  describing  the  perfect  state,  he 
makes  a  critical  analysis  of  Plato’s  Republic  and  Laws,2 
and  analyzes  the  organization  of  many  other  states, 
both  ideal  and  actual.3  He  concludes  that,  while  a 

1  Bk.  I,  Chap.  II,  §§  9  and  14. 

2  His  purpose  in  this  analysis,  however,  is  to  show  the  foundation 
for  his  ideal  state  in  that  of  Plato. 

3  These  analyses  and  comparisons  of  governments  are  found  in 
Book  II.  It  was  in  keeping  with  the  inductive  method  of  Aristotle 
that,  before  formulating  any  theory  of  the  state,  he  wrote  out  the  consti¬ 
tutions  of  one  hundred  and  fifty-eight  states,  that  he  might  see  whether 
his  hypotheses  covered  the  facts.  The  manuscript  of  his  Constitution 
of  Athens  was  accidentally  discovered  in  some  rolls  of  papyrus,  and 
acquired  by  the  British  Museum  in  1890. 


Aristotle’s 
model  state 
is  theo¬ 
retically 
a  monarchy; 
but,  because 
of  the  possi¬ 
bility  of 
deteriora¬ 
tion,  a  de¬ 
mocracy  is  to 
be  preferred. 


204 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Education  in 
the  model 
state  must 
not  be  purely 
practical. 


monarchy  is  theoretically  the  best  type  of  government, 
yet,  because  of  the  probability  of  the  king’s  deteriorat¬ 
ing  into  a  tyrant,  the  form  most  likely  to  be  exercised 
for  the  good  of  the  governed  and  least  liable  to  be 
perverted  is  the  democracy.1  Since,  however,  it  is 
the  expedient  rather  than  the  best  government,  it 
should  be  as  little  democratic  as  possible,  and  the 
power  of  the  people  should  be  minimized  wherever 
it  can  be  done  without  their  perceiving  it.2  Aristotle 
then3  investigates  the  most  fitting  life  for  this  model 
state.  He  holds  as  a  general  proposition  that  the 
ideal  state,  like  the  ideal  individual,  is  the  one  which 
leads  a  life  of  virtue,  and  thus  attains  happiness. 
Passing  to  details,  he  considers  at  length  the  best 
natural  and  social  conditions  for  a  state. 

His  final  topic  among  these  practical  considerations 
is  the  proper  education  for  the  state,  to  the  end  that 
the  citizens  may  be  made  virtuous.  But  since  virtue 
is  of  two  kinds,  moral  or  practical,  and  intellectual  or 
speculative,  and  the  former  is  merely  the  stepping-stone 
to  the  latter,  the  education  needed  for  the  virtue  of  the 
state  must  not,  like  that  of  Sparta,  be  purely  a  training 
for  war  and  practical  affairs.  It  must  be  primarily 
intellectual,  since  war  should  exist  only  for  the  sake  of 
peace,  and  business  for  the  sake  of  leisure. 

1  See  Bks.  Ill  and  IV.  2  Bk.  VI. 

3  Bk.  VII. 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS) 


205 


To  mark  off  the  periods  of  education,  Aristotle  again 
examines  the  nature  of  the  soul.  As  in  The  Ethics,  he 
divides  it  into  the  irrational  and  the  rational,  but  to  the 
former  he  here  assigns  only  the  impulses  and  desires. 
Nutrition  and  growth  are  now  considered  functions  of 
the  body.  From  this  division  it  appears  that  “As  the 
body  is  prior  in  order  of  generation  to  the  soul,  so  the 
irrational  is  prior  to  the  rational.  The  proof  is  that 
anger,  will,  and  desire  are  implanted  in  children  from 
their  very  birth ;  but  reason  and  understanding  are 
developed  as  they  grow  older.  Wherefore  the  care  of 
the  body  ought  to  precede  that  of  the  soul,  and  the  train¬ 
ing  of  the  impulsive  side  of  the  soul  ought  to  come  next; 
nevertheless,  the  care  of  it  must  be  for  the  sake  of  the 
reason,  and  the  care  of  the  body  for  the  sake  of  the  soul.”  1 

The  development  of  the  body  Aristotle  wishes  to  start 
even  before  birth,  by  having  the  legislator  “consider 
how  the  frames  of  the  children  whom  he  is  rearing  may 
be  as  good  as  possible,  and  make  marriage  his  first 
care,, —  at  what  age  his  citizens  should  marry  and  who 
are  fit  to  marry.”  2  Also  he  deems  it  necessary  to  sanc¬ 
tion  the  usage  of  his  time  of  exposing  all  deformed  or 
weakly  children ;  and  he  goes  so  far  as  to  recommend 
abortion  for  those  who  would  prevent  an  excess  of 
children.  However,  his  advice3  concerning  the  food, 

1  Bk.  VII,  Chap.  XV,  §§  9-10.  2  Bki  VII,  Chap.  XVI,  §  1. 

3  Bk.  VII,  Chap.  XVII,  §§  1-2. 


Periods  of 
education. 


Bodily 

training. 


206 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Education  of 
the  irrational 
soul : 

gymnastics, 


clothing,  and  exercise  of  the  children  that  are  to  be 
reared,  is  much  more  humane,  and  in  many  respects 
very  sensible,  even  according  to  modern  hygiene.  He 
also  holds  that  the  child’s  games  should  not  be  vulgar, 
tiring,  or  riotous ;  and  care  should  be  taken  that  he  hear 
no  improper  stories  or  language,  and  see  no  indecent 
pictures.  For  this  reason,  boys  should  come  in  contact 
with  slaves  as  little  as  possible,  and  should  not  be 
allowed  to  attend  satirics  or  comedy. 

The  training  thus  far  traced  is  a  preparation  for  the 
formal  schooling,  which  is  to  last  from  seven  to  twenty- 
one,  and  is  divided  into  two  periods  by  puberty.  Educa¬ 
tion  should  be  public,  Aristotle  claims,  as  in  Sparta, 
for  it  is  the  business  of  the  state  to  see  that  its  citizens 
are  all  rendered  virtuous.1  However,  he  has  previously 
maintained  that  the  industrial  classes  have  no  need  of 
education,  since  they  are  not  citizens,2  and  that  women, 
since  they  are  radically  different  from  men,  are  to  be 
limited  in  the  scope  of  their  training.3 

The  course  of  study  that  he  follows  is  largely  the 
same  in  content  as  that  in  use  at  Athens,  although  he 
recommends  some  reforms.  He  discusses  gymnastics 
as  a  continuation  of  the  bodily  training,  and  the  need 
of  music  and  literary  subjects  for  the  irrational  soul ; 

xBk.  VIII,  Chap.  I,  §§  3-4.  Compare  Bk.  V,  Chap.  IX,  §§  11-12. 

2  Bk.  Ill,  Chap.  IV,  §§  11-12,  and  elsewhere. 

8  Bk.  I,  Chap.  XIV,  §  15. 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS) 


but  with  Aristotle  even  gymnastics  is  intended  for  self- 
control  and  beauty  of  form,  and  so  also  has  to  do  with 
training  the  irrational  soul.  The  making  of  neither  ath¬ 
letes  nor  warriors  should  be  the  object,  since  excessive 
training  exhausts  the  constitution,  and  martial  education 
is  brutalizing,  as  the  history  of  the  Spartans  clearly 
shows.  Not  until  three  years  after  puberty,  therefore, 
should  hard  exercise  and  forced  dieting  begin.  During 
the  intervening  years  the  youths  are  to  devote  them¬ 
selves  to  reading,  writing,  music,  and  drawing. 

These  literary  subjects  are  not  to  be  taught  merely  literary 
for  utilitarian  reasons.  "  Children  should  be  instructed  subjects’ 
in  reading  and  writing  not  only  for  their  usefulness,  but 
also  because  many  other  sorts  of  knowledge  are  acquired 
through  them.  With  a  like  view  they  may  be  taught 
drawing,  not  to  prevent  their  making  mistakes  in  their 
own  purchases,  or  in  order  that  they  may  not  be  imposed 
upon  in  the  buying  or  selling  of  articles,  but  rather 
because  it  makes  them  judges  of  the  beauty  of  the 
human  form.”  1 

Music  is  discussed  by  Aristotle  at  considerable  and  music, 
length.  It  may  be  used  for  relaxation  or  for  intel¬ 
lectual  enjoyment,  but  higher  development  is  its  special 
purpose.  Music  inspires  us,  he  claims,  with  the  most 
vivid  imitations  of  real  emotions.  “  Some  melodies 
make  men  sad  and  grave,  like  the  mixed  Lydian ; 

1  Bk.  VIII,  Chap.  Ill,  §§  n-12. 


208 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Education  of 
the  rational 
soul. 


others  enfeeble  the  mind,  like  the  relaxed  harmonies; 
others  produce  a  moderate  and  settled  temper,  which 
appears  to  be  the  peculiar  effect  of  the  Dorian ;  the 
Phrygian  inspires  enthusiasm.”  1  Since  melodies  that 
afford  pleasure  are  connected  with  noble  ideas,  and 
those  which  give  us  pain  are  joined  to  debased  ideas, 
the  study  of  music  “  cultivates  the  habit  of  forming 
right  judgments,  and  of  taking  delight  in  good  disposi¬ 
tions  and  noble  actions.”  Another  moral  effect  of 
music,  he  declares  later,2  is  that  it  produces  katharsis 
(‘  purification  ’).  He  explains  this  term  in  another 
treatise,3  which  shows  that  his  meaning  here  is  that 
music,  by  arousing  in  us  pity  and  fear  for  humanity  at 
large,  lifts  us  out  of  ourselves  and  affords  a  safe  vent 
for  our  emotions. 

He  maintains  that  children  should  be  taught  to  play 

and  sing  themselves,  since  “  it  is  difficult,  if  not  impos- 

* 

sible,  for  those  who  do  not  perform  to  be  good  judges 
of  the  performances  of  others,”  but  they  should  not 
seek  the  skill  of  a  professional,  for  this  would  be  un¬ 
worthy  of  a  gentleman.  He  also  condemns  as  immoral 
the  flute  and  several  other  instruments,  “  which  are 
intended  only  to  give  pleasure  to  the  hearer,  and  re¬ 
quire  extraordinary  skill.” 

Such  was  the  training  for  the  body  and  the  impulsive 
or  irrational  side  of  the  soul.  How  Aristotle  would 


i  Bk.  VIII,  Chap.  V,  §  22. 


2  Bk.  VIII,  Chap.  VII,  §  3. 


3  Poetics ,  VI. 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS) 


209 


have  advised  that  the  education  of  the  rational  soul 
should  be  carried  on,  can  only  be  surmised,  for  the 
treatise  breaks  off  suddenly  at  this  point,  possibly 
through  his  unfulfilled  intention  to  return  to  it  at  some 
later  day.  But  he  elsewhere 1  declares  that  the  citizens 
should  exercise  practical  functions  of  two  sorts  :  (1)  active 
service,  civil  and  military,  which  must  be  carried  on 
by  young  and  vigorous  men ;  and  (2)  advisory  duties, 
which  would  require  the  matured  wisdom  of  elderly 
men ;  and  that  the  very  oldest  of  all,  since  they  have 
had  most  experience  with  divine  things,  should  become 
the  priests  of  the  state.  But  he  could  hardly  have  been 
satisfied  with  merely  a  practical  training.  It  is  not 
improbable,  from  his  position  in  The  Ethics  and  else¬ 
where,  that  the  citizens,  as  a  means  of  further  efficiency 
after  twenty-one,  were  to  be  given  a  higher  training  in 
mathematical  sciences  and  dialectic  not  unlike  that 
advocated  by  Plato.  And  it  is  likely  that,  from  his  own 
predilections,  he  would  also  have  added  some  physical 
and  biological  science  to  the  earlier  part  of  this  course. 

Criticism  of  The  Ethics  and  The  Politics.  —  Thus  Aris¬ 
totle,  like  Plato,  endeavored  to  work  out  the  harmonizing 
of  individual  with  social  interests  by  the  creation  of  an 
ideal  state.  The  greatest  good  for  man,  he  claimed, 
depends  upon  the  realization  of  his  peculiar  function  of 
rationality,  but  the  state  may  be  so  shaped  as  to 

1  Bk.  VII,  Chap.  IX,  §§  4-9. 

p 


Why  The 
Politics 
failed  to 
harmonize 
the  individ¬ 
ual  and  the 
state. 


210 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


afford  the  most  complete  exercise  of  this  faculty.  The 
state  is  both  means  and  end ;  it  produces  the  proper 
type  of  individual  through  its  training,  and  is  itself 
shaped  by  the  acts  of  these  individuals.  Hence  through¬ 
out  The  Politics,  as  in  The  Republic  and  The  Laws,  a 
large  importance  is  attached  to  the  function  of  education 
in  the  state. 

Nevertheless,  the  state  of  Aristotle,  like  that  of  Plato, 
failed  to  answer  the  demand  of  the  times.  While  it 
was  much  less  visionary  and  nearer  the  actual  condi¬ 
tions  than  The  Republic,  and  was  not  so  hard  and  fast 
as  to  preclude  absolutely  the  introduction  of  improve¬ 
ment  and  change,  it  could  not  recognize  the  significance 
of  individualism.  The  day  of  the  small  isolated  states 
of  Greece,  with  their  narrow  prescriptions  for  patriotism 
and  social  order,  had  passed  forever.  While  Aristotle 
seems  to  feel  this  vaguely  in  declaring  that  the  ideal 
state  is  a  great  empire  holding  broad  and  diverse  in¬ 
terests  and  having  a  large-minded  monarch  at  its  head, 
he  failed  to  perceive  how  rapidly  the  era  of  exclusive¬ 
ness  was  fading  away,  and  so  hoped  to  achieve  some 
reform  by  departing  but  little  from  existing  conditions 
and  reading  a  sort  of  philosophy  into  them. 

It  is  this  partial  bondage  to  his  times  and  his  lack  of 
imagination  that  account  for  his  defense  of  slavery  and 
insistence  upon  the  inferiority  of  barbarians,  the  dis¬ 
franchisement  and  lack  of  education  for  the  industrial 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS) 


21 1 


classes,  the  subordination  of  women,  and  the  exposure 
of  children.  For  this  reason,  his  educational  system 
made  practically  no  advance  beyond  that  of  Plato,  and 
there  were  no  forces  within  the  state  to  put  into  effect 
the  reforms  that  he  did  recommend. 

Influence  of  Aristotle.  —  Consequently,  the  work  of 
Aristotle  was  a  failure  for  the  time  being.  His  treatises 
had  little  or  no  effect  upon  society,  and  the  school  of 
the  Peripatetics,  which  he  founded,  did  little  toward 
developing  his  philosophy  and  science.  They  largely 
confined  their  efforts  to  collecting  and  interpreting  the 
master’s  works,  and  completing  them  by  a  combination 
of  the  fragments.  Early  in  the  third  century  all  his 
writings  were  carried  to  Asia  Minor  by  the  head  of 
the  school  and  hidden  in  a  vault  to  avoid  destruction. 
There  they  lay  for  nearly  two  centuries,  when  they 
were  taken  to  the  library  at  Alexandria,1  and  later 
were  brought  to  Rome. 

The  ideas  of  Aristotle,  however,  were  not  destined  to 
be  without  results.  While  his  immediate  influence  in 
general  was  little  felt,  and  the  direct  effect  of  his  teach¬ 
ings  upon  education  in  particular  was  small,  his  philo¬ 
sophic  and  scientific  treatises  have  since  been  considered 
of  great  value,  and  the  method  that  he  formulated  has 
been  most  important  in  the  development  of  civilization, 
especially  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Instead  of  trying  to 

1  See  p.  220. 


Little  im¬ 
mediate 
effect  of 
Aristotle. 


Later  in¬ 
fluence 
through  his 
method, 


212 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


his  logic 
and  other 
sciences, 


and  his 
terminology. 


find  truth  in  a  mystic  world  beyond  the  senses  through 
an  appeal  to  the  individual  consciousness,  as  did  Plato, 
Aristotle  investigated  the  conditions  of  the  objective 
world  and  sought  to  check  on  the  hypotheses  he  formed 
by  an  appeal  to  the  historic  consciousness  of  the  race. 
Thus  he  regularly  sought  confirmation  of  his  theories 
in  the  statements  of  the  philosophers,  the  masses,  and 
other  exponents  of  social  inheritances.  He  believed 
that  whatever  is  attained  by  the  method  of  introspection, 
as  was  seen  in  the  case  of  the  dialectic  of  Socrates,1 
must  be  formal  and  lacking  in  content.  Thus  he  came 
to  set  aside  dialectic  in  favor  of  the  inductive  method. 

As  a  result,  through  the  use  of  this  method,  he  not 
only  started,  or  made  the  first  important  contributions 
to,  a  number  of  sciences,  as  was  stated  at  the  beginning 
of  this  account,  but  in  his  Organon  he  also  formulated 
the  laws  of  thought  itself.  While  he  accomplished 
much  less  in  working  out  induction  than  deduction, 
practically  nothing  has  been  added  to  formal  logic  since 
his  day.  Logic  was  regarded  by  him  not  as  a  separate 
science,  but  as  introductory  to  all  sciences;  and,  for 
this  reason,  his  philosophy  and  science  were  universal 
in  nature,  and  he  may  be  considered  the  father  of  the 
whole  progressive  search  for  truth. 

Also,  as  instruments  to  assist  in  fashioning  the  vari¬ 
ous  sciences,  Aristotle  forged  a  complete  system  of  ter- 


1  See  p.  183. 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS) 


213 


minology,  which  has  been  of  great  value  in  philosophy 
and  natural  science  alike  ever  since  his  day.  Through 
his  efforts  to  systematize  thought  were  created  such 
pairs  as  ‘matter’  and  ‘form,’  and  ‘mean’  and  ‘extreme,’ 
and  such  convenient  expressions  as  ‘  end  ’  in  the  sense 
of  purpose  in  view,  ‘  final  cause,’  ‘  principle,’  and 
‘maxim,’  and  the  common  psychological  term  of  ‘habit’ 
and  the  now  outworn  ‘  faculty.’ 

In  definite  historical  movements  also  Aristotle’s  in¬ 
fluence  has  been  apparent.  His  part  in  preparing  the 
way  for  Christianity  through  accustoming  people  to  the 
idea  of  an  inspirational  body  outside  society,  and  his 
responsibility  for  the  doctrine  of  ‘formal  discipline,’ 
have  already  been  touched  upon  in  summarizing  Plato. 
But  a  more  important  effect  of  Aristotle’s  ideas  has  been 
that  upon  the  formulation  of  doctrine  in  the  Christian 
Church.  After  Greek  learning  had  been  banished  from 
Europe  through  the  Emperor  Justinian  in  529  a.d., 
Aristotelianism  took  refuge  in  the  East.  Eventually, 
through  the  spread  of  Mohammedanism,  which  had 
largely  absorbed  the  doctrine  of  Aristotle,  it  became 
generally  popular  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centu¬ 
ries  and  threatened  to  overthrow  Christianity.  There¬ 
fore,  Aristotelianism  was  at  first  bitterly  opposed  by  the 
Church  ;  but,  finding  it  impossible  to  suppress  it,  the 
Church  finally  decided  to  adopt  it  and  clothe  her  own 
doctrine  in  it.  The  greatest  of  the  schoolmen,  such  as 


Influence 
upon  histor¬ 
ical  move¬ 
ments  : 
organization 
of  Christian¬ 
ity;  formal 
discipline ; 


and  Chris¬ 
tian  doctrine, 
after  the 
spread  of 
Mohammed¬ 
anism. 


214 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Failure  of 
Aristotle  to 
reconcile  the 
old  with  the 
new  order. 


J 


Alexander  of  Hales,  Albertus  Magnus,  and  Thomas 
Aquinas,  began  to  study  it,  and  soon  made  it  the  effect¬ 
ive  weapon  of  the  Church  by  reducing  all  human  knowl¬ 
edge  to  a  finished  Aristotelian  system  with  theology  at 
the  top.  The  doctrines  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
are  consequently  decked  in  an  Aristotelian  garb  to-day. 
The  introduction  of  Aristotelianism,  however,  also  en¬ 
couraged  the  use  of  reason,  and  so  indirectly  led  to  both 
the  Renaissance  and  the  Reformation. 

Triumph  of  Individualism.  —  But  the  irenic  attempt 
of  Aristotle  was  fruitless.  While  his  measures  were 
more  practical  and  scientific  than  those  of  Socrates  and 
Plato,  and  far  more  progressive  than  the  ideals  of  Py¬ 
thagoras,  Aeschylus,  and  Xenophon,  he  likewise  failed 
in  the  attempt  to  reconcile  with  the  old  and  settled 
order  the  ever-expanding  movement  toward  individual¬ 
ism.  Thus  all  efforts  to  control  the  tendencies  of  the 
time  were  vain.  Through  the  instrumentality  of  the 
sophists,  the  traditional  religion  and  morals  had  been 
disrupted,  and  the  masses  were  unable  to  grasp  the 
rational  moral  teachings  that  were  intended  to  take 
their  place.  Corruption  in  politics  and  social  life,  due 
to  the  prosperity  of  Athens,  when  combined  with  the 
denial  of  every  norm  of  conduct,  continued  to  under¬ 
mine  the  foundation  until,  before  long,  it  tottered  and 
fell.  The  terrible  misfortunes  of  the  Peloponnesian  War 
and  the  conquest  of  the  Greek  states  by  Philip  of  Macedon 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS)  215 


were  only  symptomatic  of  the  complete  collapse  of  cor¬ 
porate  life  and  the  inability  to  reconstruct  it  successfully. 

Later  Greek  Education.  —  With  the  downfall  of  the 
polity  of  Athens,  what  national  pride  had  remained 
was  lost.  All  possibility  of  social  unity  disappeared, 
and  philosophy  no  longer  considered  the  individual 
from  the  standpoint  of  membership  in  society.  It 
was  occupied  no  further  with  the  harmonization  of 
the  individual  and  the  state,  but  concerned  itself  with 
the  welfare  of  the  individual  and  the  art  of  living.  In¬ 
dividualism  was  completely  triumphant,  and  education 
was  considered  simply  as  a  means  to  personal  develop¬ 
ment  or  happiness,  without  regard  to  one’s  fellows. 
The  new  theories  of  life  and  education  were  formulated 
by  philosophers  or  schools  of  philosophy  that  kept  them¬ 
selves  far  removed  from  society.  Where  formerly  the 
philosophers  had  sought  a  practical  ideal  for  expression 
in  life,  the  intellectual  activity  itself  now  became  their 
ideal.  Philosophy  had  begun  as  an  effort  toward  secur¬ 
ing  better  social  expression,  but  now  the  mere  pleasure 
of  speculating  was  sufficient.  So  any  means  may  tend 
to  harden  and  become  an  end  in  itself. 

Philosophical  Schools.  —  This  tendency  is  noticeable 
even  as  early  as  the  foundation  of  the  schools  at  the 
Academy  and  Lyceum,  two  well-known  gymnasia,  where 
Plato  and  Aristotle  respectively  had  taught.1  The  mem- 


Later  Greek 
education 
shows  indi¬ 
vidualism. 


Individ¬ 
ualistic 
tendencies 
in  the  philo¬ 
sophical 
schools. 


1  See  footnote  on  page  165. 


21 6 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


bers  of  the  latter  were  commonly  known  as  Peripatetics, 
from  their  founder’s  habit  of  carrying  on  his  discussions 
while  walking  to  and  fro.  But  individualistic  ideals  are 
much  more  apparent  in  several  post-Aristotelian  schools, 
such  as  the  Epicureans,  Stoics,  and  Skeptics.  The  Epi¬ 
cureans  considered  individual  pleasure  the  goal  of  life, 
and  while  their  founder,  Epicurus  (341-270  b.c.),  and 
his  earlier  followers,  did  not  mean  thereby  the  pursuit  of 
sensual  pleasure,  it  eventually  came  to  this.  With  Sto¬ 
icism,  instituted  by  Zeno  (340-265  b.c.),  and  given  a 
more  scientific  trend  by  Chrysippus  (280-209  b.c.),  the 
end  to  be  sought  was  freedom  from  desire  and  external 
wants,  and  so  immunity  from  the  disturbances  and  trivi¬ 
alities  of  the  world.  True  satisfaction,  the  Stoics  claimed, 
lay  within  the  individual  mind,  and  on  the  basis  of  this 
they  developed  the  loftiest  ethical  code  before  the 
time  of  Christ.  When  their  activities  were  trans¬ 
ferred  to  Rome,  they  included  most  of  the  great  mor¬ 
alists  among  their  adherents.  Skepticism,  on  the  other 
hand,  was  a  complete  reaction  from  the  long  period  of 
speculation,  and  represented  an  absolute  distrust  of  all 
reason.  Pyrrho  (365—275  b.c.),  the  first  skeptic,  main¬ 
tained  that,  since  a  final  decision  concerning  external 
things  is  out  of  the  question,  one  should  take  refuge 
in  ignorance  and  indifference.  This  was  more  indi¬ 
vidualistic  and  anarchistic  than  even  the  doctrine  of 
Protagoras. 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS)  217 

None  of  these  ‘schools’  could  be  so  termed  in  the 
sense  of  offering  an  education,  but  rather  in  the  mod¬ 
ern  usage  of  a  group  of  adherents  to  certain  teachings. 
They  were  merely  sects,  and  did  not,  through  their  suc¬ 
cessive  heads,  make  any  serious  attempt  to  construct 
doctrines  beyond  those  of  their  founders.  They  spent 
their  energy,  for  the  most  part,  in  interpreting,  elabo¬ 
rating,  and  lauding  the  original  teachings.  The  result 
was  a  stereotyped  dogmatism  and  a  descent  from  the 
heights  of  philosophy.  And  yet  for  several  centuries 
these  philosophic  schools,  especially  the  Stoic  and  Epi¬ 
curean,  held  sway. 

Rhetorical  Schools.  —  But  sects  of  this  character  were 
not  the  only  outcome  of  the  teaching  of  the  sophists. 
These  schools,  as  has  been  seen,  came  about  gradually 
from  th^  speculative  tendencies  of  the  sophists  as  de¬ 
veloped  through  certain  famous  philosophers,  but  there 
also  grew  up  more  directly  from  their  efforts  to  train 
young  men  in  rhetoric  and  public  speaking  a  multitude 
of  rhetorical  schools,  in  which  a  formal  study  was  made 
of  oratory  and  the  knowledge  of  the  day.  Their  pro¬ 
fessed  object  was  to  make  successful  men  of  the  world, 
and  they  laid  little  claim  to  teaching  anything  solid  or 
profound,  much  less  to  forming  any  philosophic  habits. 
They  succeeded  in  spreading  a  popular  education  among 
a  people  that  had  lost  all  hope  of  political  life  and  had 
found  their  highest  means  of  expression  in  polite  society. 


Lack  of 
originality. 


Origin  of 
rhetorical 
schools. 


21 8 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Isocrates  and 
his  school. 


Later  schools 
of  rhetoric. 


One  of  the  earliest  of  these  schools,  and  the  most  rep¬ 
utable  and  influential  of  all,  was  that  of  the  florid  Isoc¬ 
rates  (436-338  b.c.).  He  had  been  a  pupil  of  Socrates, 
but  became  distrustful  of  the  value  of  abstract  specula¬ 
tion  as  a  means  of  making  the  thoughtful  man  and 
efficient  citizen.  Accordingly,  he  started  to  prepare 
young  men  for  public  life  through  a  study  of  rhetoric 
and  the  prudential  philosophy  of  the  world.  As  he  was 
a  man  of  large  political  interests  and  general  culture, 
the  training  he  afforded  was  broad  and  rational,  except 
for  its  attitude  toward  philosophy  and  science.  He  be¬ 
lieved  that  eloquence  is  the  product  of  the  virtuous  soul, 
and  that  a  beautiful  style  is  the  handmaid  of  virtue  in 
the  individual  and  of  justice  in  the  state.  Hence  he 
held  that  the  entire  higher  education  should  be  linguistic 
and  literary.  In  this  way  he  helped  the  philosophers 
make  Athens  a  great  literary  center. 

But  the  rhetorical  schools  soon  degenerated  into  nar¬ 
row  and  formal  methods.  The  later  rhetoricians  at¬ 
tempted  to  hasten  oratorical  training  and  preparation 
for  life  by  teaching  their  pupils  ready-made  speeches 
and  dialogues  together  with  isolated  pieces  of  informa¬ 
tion.  The  students  thus  acquired  a  certain  glibness 
and  a  superficial  knowledge  of  questions  of  the  day  in 
addition  to  the  mere  technique  of  oratory.  Neverthe¬ 
less,  these  schools  flourished  for  several  centuries  and 
closely  rivalled  those  of  the  philosophers. 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS) 


219 


Universities.  —  From  these  two  classes  of  schools,  the 
philosophical  and  the  rhetorical,  the  fame  of  Athens 
spread  rapidly,  and  from  the  fourth  century  before 
Christ  onward  the  numbers  of  young  men  from  all  over 
the  civilized  world  who  came  there  to  study  steadily  in¬ 
creased.  In  Athens  itself  the  old  ephebic  training  was 
gradually  modified  so  as  to  allow  the  youths  to  attend 
courses  of  one  or  more  philosophers  or  rhetoricians  in 
the  intervals  between  their  active  duties,  and  about  the 
time  of  the  Macedonian  conquest  the  whole  physical 
training  was  first  narrowed  to  a  single  year  and  then 
made  optional.  About  the  same  time  the  intellectual 
education  was  made  compulsory.  Thus  from  the  union 
of  physical  and  intellectual  training  sprang  a  regular  in¬ 
stitution  or  university,  which  the  Athenian  youths  were 
compelled  to  attend,  and  to  which  students  from  outside 
might  come.  As  many  of  the  latter  had  received  but 
little  preparation  for  the  work,  there  arose  a  number  of 
private  teachers  as  dependent  or  subordinate  officers  of 
the  university. 

Before  long,  the  Hellenic  world  boasted  other  univer¬ 
sities,  such  as  those  at  Rhodes,  Pergamon,  Alexandria, 
and  Rome.  Nevertheless,  Athens,  until  almost  300  a.d., 
remained  the  chief  intellectual  center  of  civilization.  It 
afforded  the  best  opportunities  for  philosophical,  scien¬ 
tific,  literary,  grammatical,  and  rhetorical  work,  and 
continued  to  attract  students  from  all  parts  of  the  Roman 


Develop¬ 
ment  of  the 
University 
of  Athens. 


220 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Alexandria 
and  her 
university. 


Its  intellec¬ 
tual  pro¬ 
ductions  : 


Empire.  But  the  tendency  of  higher  education  there 
was  toward  the  study  of  rhetoric  alone ;  and,  while  great 
teachers  like  Isocrates  had  been  able  to  maintain  the 
union  between  education  and  real  life,  even  after  style 
rather  than  knowledge  had  become  the  object,  artificial¬ 
ity  grew  apace,  and  decay  finally  resulted. 

In  consequence,  some  time  during  the  third  century 
after  Christ,  Alexandria  displaced  Athens  as  the  center 
of  culture,  and  her  university  became  the  leading  one 
of  the  world.  This  university  had  grown  out  of  the 
museum  and  library  founded  about  300  b.c.  by  the 
Ptolemies.  These  institutions  were  maintained  in  pur¬ 
suance  of  the  policy  of  Alexander  to  make  of  his  name¬ 
sake  a  city  of  predominant  influence  in  the  Greek  world. 
Here  were  collected  the  most  remarkable  sets  of  Greek, 
Egyptian,  Babylonio-Assyrian,  and  Jewish  manuscripts 
that  had  ever  been  known ;  and  here  the  most  distin¬ 
guished  scholars  of  the  day  lectured  on  philosophy, 
letters,  and  science.  About  the  library  and  museum 
gathered  the  various  philosophic  sects  to  study  and  dis¬ 
cuss,  and  the  doctrines  promulgated  were  not  limited  to 
Greek  thought,  but  included  beliefs  from  Egypt  and  the 
Orient. 

Hence  it  was  naturally  here  that  the  higher  abstract 
Greek  philosophy  united  with  the  more  concrete  beliefs 
of  the  Orient,  including  especially  Zoroastrianism,  Juda¬ 
ism,  and  Christianity.  Thus  there  flourished  at  this 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS)  221 


center  the  various  systems  of  religious  philosophy 
known  collectively  as  ‘  Hellenistic,’  such  as  Neopytha- 
goreanism,  Neomazdeism,  Philonism,  Gnosticism,  and 
Neoplatonism.  Consequently,  it  was  at  Alexandria  that 
the  more  liberal  of  the  Christian  fathers,  Pantsenus, 
Clement,  and  Origen,  started  their  school.  But  science 
was  equally  well  represented  with  philosophy  and 
theology.  Considerably  before  Alexandria  had  be¬ 
come  preeminent  in  philosophy,  there  had  been 
developed  at  the  same  center  the  Ptolemaic  theory  of 
the  universe,  which  held  until  the  days  of  Copernicus. 
Other  noted  investigations,  like  those  of  Euclid  in 
geometry,  some  of  those  of  Archimedes  in  physics, 
of  Eratosthenes  in  astronomy  and  physical  geography, 
and,  much  later,  of  Diophantus  in  algebra,  also  bear 
witness  to  the  intellectual  activity  of  this  university. 
However,  much  formalism  and  fruitless  commentaries 
also  emanated  from  here,  as  they  did  from  all  the  other 
academic  centers  in  Hellenistic  times. 

Extension  of  Hellenic  Culture.  —  It  can  be  seen,  how¬ 
ever,  from  the  very  extensiveness  of  mental  activity 
after  the  Macedonian  conquest,  that  the  downfall  of 
Greek  society  and  national  life  had  only  prepared  the 
way  for  a  larger  intellectual  influence.  As  Alexander 
had  extended  his  yoke  over  one  Eastern  country  after 
another,  he  had  carried  with  him  all  the  culture  of 
Greece,  and  within  a  century  of  his  death  the  whole 


‘Hellenistic* 

philosophy, 


and  scientific 
investigation. 


Hellenizing 
of  the  Orient. 


222 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Continuation 
of  Greek 
culture  by 
the  Romans. 


Its  expand¬ 
ing  ideals. 


Orient  seems  to  have  been  saturated  with  Greek  ideas. 
These  are  noticeable  first  in  externals,  such  as  the  Greek 
palaestrae,  gymnasia,  theaters,  stadia,  and  baths  that 
appeared  in  every  portion  of  the  East.  But  soon  the 
deeper  culture,  —  the  literature,  philosophy,  art,  and 
learning,  became  common  throughout  the  Orient;  and 
Greek  customs,  institutions,  and  education  were  in¬ 
grained  everywhere. 

Similarly  Rome,  which  had  come  somewhat  into  con¬ 
tact  with  Greece  before  conquering  her,  had  been 
tinctured  with  Greek  life  and  learning ;  and,  after  her 
absorption  of  Macedon  and  Hellas,  she  fell  under  the 
spiritual  thrall  of  the  subjugated  people.  After  146  b.c. 
the  history  of  Greek  civilization  and  education  was 
speedily  so  amalgamated  with  the  Roman  that  it  can 
scarcely  be  distinguished  from  it,  and  Greek  thought 
was  by  this  means  further  spread  throughout  the  world. 
The  Greek  philosophical  and  rhetorical  schools  were 
continued  in  Rome,  Roman  youths  made  up  a  great 
body  of  the  attendance  at  the  universities  of  Athens 
and  Alexandria,  and  the  Roman  emperors  did  much 
for  the  support  and  extension  of  the  work  in  these 
institutions  of  learning. 

Survey  of  Greek  Education.  —  But  before  following 
the  continuation  of  Greek  education  and  culture  among 
the  Romans,  it  may  be  well  to  take  a  bird’s-eye  view 
of  the  development  of  this  training  in  the  land  that  gave 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS) 


223 


it  birth.  The  history  of  Greek  education  is  a  record  of 
ever-expanding  ideals.  It  portrays  a  gradual  elevation 
of  the  individual  from  bondage  to  nature  or  convention 
to  freedom  of  expression  and  complete  realization  of 
the  self,  although  this  resulted  in  an  extreme  reaction 
toward  the  satisfaction  of  the  individual  without  regard 
to  society,  and  the  downfall  of  Greek  independence. 

Each  stage  in  this  educational  development  was 
accompanied  by  corresponding  social  and  political  con¬ 
ditions,  and  was  characterized  by  definite  ideals.  In  the 
prehistoric  times  the  people  were  still  somewhat  bound 
by  the  blood-tie  and  the  worship  of  gods  representing 
natural  forces.  Their  morality  was  that  of  the  com¬ 
munity  ;  and  the  aim  of  education,  while  more  elastic 
and  advanced  than  that  of  primitive  man,  and,  in  some 
respects,  of  the  barbarian  peoples,  was  to  fit  the  youth 
for  the  practical  life  of  war  and  the  council. 

Even  during  the  older  historic  period,  when  the  city- 
state  had  been  generally  organized,  and  the  ownership 
of  land  had  become  the  social  bond,  education  had 
service  to  the  state  as  its  only  purpose.  While  in 
Sparta  this  ideal  was  based  more  upon  principles  than 
upon  precepts  like  those  of  the  Orient,  and  at  Athens 
it  was  felt  that  the  best  personal  development  would 
be  of  most  assistance  to  the  social  whole,  in  the  one 
state,  education  included  practically  no  literary,  scientific, 
or  artistic  development,  and  in  the  other  the  intellectual 


224 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


portion  of  the  curriculum  was  still  rather  formal  and 
prescribed.  These  older  historic  times  also  resembled 
the  Orient  somewhat  in  having  a  pantheon  of  gods,  and 
rising  gradually  to  henotheistic  conceptions. 

During  the  ‘  new  ’  period  the  development  of  Athens 
was  made  manifest  by  a  greater  recognition  of  per¬ 
sonality,  which  enlarged  the  culture  and  prosperity  of 
the  state.  The  old  traditional  theogony  was  replaced 
first  by  ethical  interpretations  of  the  gods,  then  by 
investigations  into  the  physical  nature  of  the  universe, 
and  finally  by  attempts  at  metaphysical  interpretations 
of  matter  and  mind.  The  old  sanctions  were  disrupted, 
and  confusion  resulted.  Extreme  individualism  became 
the  order  of  the  day,  and  the  aim  of  education  was  to 
secure  happiness  for  the  individual,  with  little  regard 
to  the  welfare  of  the  state.  This  destructive  influence 
of  individualism,  the  best  minds  of  the  times,  both  con¬ 
servative  and  progressive,  endeavored  to  stay,  but  with¬ 
out  success.  Even  philosophic  speculation  soon  be¬ 
came  an  end  in  itself  rather  than  a  means  to  social 
improvement.  All  efforts  toward  a  return  to  the  old, 
or  a  harmonization  with  the  new,  failed ;  and  the 
gradual  disintegration  of  the  state  that  had  been  going 
on  was  soon  made  manifest  at  the  onset  of  Philip.  The 
citizen  and  the  man  had  been  hopelessly  sundered,  and 
the  aim  of  the  philosophical  and  rhetorical  schools  that 
existed  after  Aristotle  was  purely  to  secure  the  happi- 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS) 


225 


ness  of  the  individual  apart  from  society.  Yet  it  was 
the  political  downfall  of  Greece  that  enabled  her  to 
spread  her  ideal  of  individualism  throughout  civilization, 
and  give  a  broader  impulse  to  progress. 

Corresponding  to  the  enlarged  ideals,  the  content  of  Advance  in 
Greek  education  was  constantly  expanding,  and  far  out-  [*j  method 
stripped  that  of  the  Orient  or  Judaea.  At  first  the  cur-  and  (3)  or-’ 

.  .  .  .  ,  „  ,  gamzation  of 

riculum  consisted  simply  of  the  attainment  of  skill  in  education, 
practical  pursuits ;  but  gradually  it  came  to  include  a 
wide  range  of  gymnastic,  literary,  musical,  scientific,  and 
philosophical  subjects  without  regard  to  their  immediate 
utility,  and,  with  Plato  and  Aristotle,  on  the  strength 
of  their  very  remoteness  from  concrete  living.  Thus 
philosophical  speculation  was  to  be  engaged  in  for  its 
own  sake,  and  not  as  a  means  of  improving  society. 

The  method  of  teaching,  too,  which  in  the  early  days 
was  merely  imitation  of  a  living  example  or  of  an  heroic 
embodiment  of  the  proper  ideals,  became  more  elaborate 
as  time  went  on,  and  made  clear  the  reason  underlying 
each  concrete  act  and  habit.  Although  during  the  pre¬ 
historic  period  there  was  no  formal  means  of  training 
the  youth,  education  soon  organized  into  regular  schools 
for  the  different  stages,  and  culminated  in  the  founda¬ 
tion  of  universities. 


In  this  way  it  came  about  that  the  Greeks  more  than 
any  other  ancient  people  showed  the  world  the  advan¬ 
tages  of  individualism.  From  their  history  we  may 


Greek  con¬ 
tributions  to 
progress. 


Q 


226 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


learn  that  only  by  permitting  variations  in  the  social,  as 
in  the  biological,  world,  can  there  be  evolved  and  fixed 
new  types  that  will  answer  to  changed  conditions,  and 
so  allow  growth  and  progress  without  the  intervention 
of  conflict  or  cataclysm.  Through  the  Greeks  it  has 
thus  become  evident  that  the  individual  should  not  only 
not  be  suppressed,  consciously  or  unconsciously,  but 
should  be  encouraged,  if  the  social  welfare  is  to  be  con¬ 
sulted  and  social  progress  to  go  on.  From  these  people 
has  developed  the  principle  that  the  expression  of  the 
individual  is  essential  to  real  stability  and  progress  alike. 

As  specific  illustrations  of  this  principle,  Greece  has 
furnished  us  with  examples  of  individualism  that  have 
been  the  source  of  much  development  since.  On  the 
intellectual  side,  she  first  recognized  that  the  truth 
should  be  sought  for  its  own  sake,  and  that  knowledge 
should  no  longer  be  connected  merely  with  theology 
and  largely  limited  to  the  priesthood.  Hence  arose  the 
idea  of  a  society  not  controlled  by  a  sacerdotal  class, 
and  to  this  is  due  the  real  debt  that  civilization  owes  to 
Greek  science  and  philosophy.  On  the  emotional  side, 
through  the  medium  of  the  fine  arts,  —  sculpture,  music, 
painting,  and  poetry,  the  concrete  expression  by  the  in¬ 
dividual  of  some  general  truth,  ideal,  or  experience,  also 
culminated  with  this  people.  From  the  Periclean  age 
on  there  was  permitted  in  these  arts  the  highest  degree 
of  individualism  known  to  the  ancient  world.  Similarly, 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS)  22? 

from  this  country  also  came  the  first  encouragement  of 
volitional  expression,  as  can  be  seen  in  her  ideas  of 
moral  freedom  and  responsibility,  and  the  search  for 
principles  of  conduct  not  based  on  any  stereotyped 
system,  but  upon  reason.  Naturally  enough,  all  these 
forms  of  expression  grew  up  in  connection,  on  the  insti¬ 
tutional  side,  with  the  first  instances  of  political  individ¬ 
uality,  as  found  in  the  self-governing  states  of  Greece. 

But  this  was  the  first  extensive  essay  at  individualism, 
and  it  can  hardly  be  supposed  that  it  was  completely 
successful.  Inasmuch  as  the  industrial  class  was 
allowed  neither  the  franchise  nor  education,  foreigners 
were  despised  as  inferiors,  and  slavery  was  sanctioned, 
some  nine-tenths  of  the  male  population  of  Athens  must 
have  been  absolutely  excluded  from  the  rights  of  indi¬ 
vidualism.  While  women  were  kindly  treated,  they 
were  always  regarded  as  subordinate  to  men,  and  only 
those  of  questionable  reputation  were  ever  outside  the 
household.  Children  had  absolutely  no  rights  of  their 
own,  but  were  held  subservient  to  the  interests  of  the 
state  or  their  parents,  and  might  be  exposed  when  they 
were  deformed  or  supernumerary. 

Moreover,  the  Greeks  never  obtained  a  complete  con¬ 
ception  of  personality,  as,  with  the  exception  of  the 
later  Stoics,  they  never  approached  the  moral  conscious¬ 
ness  of  the  Jews.  Their  ethics  consisted  mostly  in  a 
counterbalancing  of  the  rights  of  individuals,  and  not  the 


Limitations 
of  the  times. 


228 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


comparison  of  self  with  a  superior  self  through  a  divine 
ideal.  Consequently,  the  future  life  with  them  was, 
except  for  the  great  philosophers,  a  conception  but  little 
more  developed  than  with  the  Orientals. 

However,  it  is  well  that  all  worth  living  for  was  not 
worked  out  at  once,  and  that  social  evolution  did  not 
close  with  the  Greeks.  It  is  sufficient  that  one  people 
and  age  should  have  given  to  civilization  so  many  lofty 
ideas  concerning  what  a  free  man  should  be  and  what 
education  best  befits  him.  Whatever  their  achievements 
may  have  been,  the  Greeks  should  be  credited  with  the 
greatest  impulse  to  progress,  for  they  started  the  belief 
in  the  necessity  of  individualism,  and  so  furnished  the 
first  real  dynamic  conception  of  life. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 
I.  Sources 

Aristophanes.  The  Clouds  and  The  Frogs. 

Aristotle.  Ethics ,  Politics ,  and  Poetics. 

Herodotus.  Books  VI  and  VII. 

Homer.  Iliad  and  Odyssey. 

Isocrates.  Against  the  Sophists  and  On  the  Exchange  of  Estates. 
Plato.  Apology ,  Critias ,  Crito,  Gorgias ,  Meno ,  Phcedo ,  Phcedrus , 
Protagoras ,  and  Republic  and  Laws. 

Plutarch.  Lycurgus  and  Moralia  (especially  The  Nurture  of 
Children ) . 

Thucydides.  Books  II,  VI,  and  VII. 

Xenophon.  Hellenica ,  Cyropcedia ,  (Economicus ,  and  Memorabilia. 
Also  Monroe’s  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education  ( Greek 
and  Roma?i  Period  ). 


SPARTA  AND  ATHENS  (THE  GREEKS)  229 


II.  Authorities 

Adamson,  J.  E.  The  Theory  of  Education  in  Plato'1  s  Republic . 
Becker,  W.  A.  Charicles.  Scene  First  and  Excursus  on  Education. 
Blumner,  H.  Home  Life  of  the  Ancient  Greeks.  Chap.  III. 
Bosanquet,  B.  The  Education  of  the  Young  in  Plato's  Republic. 
Bryan,  W.  L.  Plato  the  Teacher.  Pp.  181-409. 

Burnet,  J.  Aristotle  on  Education. 

Butcher,  S.  H.  Some  Aspects  of  Greek  Genius.  Pp.  1-84. 

Capes,  W.  W.  University  Life  in  Ancient  Athens. 

Davidson,  T.  Education  of  the  Greek  People. 

Freeman,  K.  J.  Schools  of  Hellas  from  600  to  300  B.C. 

Grote,  G.  History  of  Greece. 

Keller,  A.  G.  Homeric  Society. 

Lane,  F.  H.  Elementary  Greek  Education. 

Laurie,  S.  S.  Pre-Christian  Education.  The  Hellenic  Race. 
Mahaffy,  J.  P.  Greek  Life  and  Thought.  Chap.  XIII. 

Mahaffy,  J.  P.  Old  Greek  Education. 

Mahaffy,  J.  P.  Social  Life  in  Greece.  Chaps.  IX-XI. 

Monroe,  P.  Text-book  in  the  History  of  Education.  Chap.  III. 
Nettleship,  R.  L.  Theory  of  Greek  Education  in  Plato's  Republic. 
Seymour,  T.  D.  Life  in  the  Homeric  Age. 

Tucker,  T.  G.  Life  in  Ancient  Athens.  Chap.  IX. 

Wilkins,  A.  S.  National  Education  in  Greece. 

Zeller,  E.  Plato  and  the  Old  Academy. 

Zeller,  E.  Socrates  and  the  Socratic  Schools. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

ROME  AND  THE  ROMAN  WORLD 


The 

Kingdom. 


The  name  of  Rome  is  still  suggestive  of  power  and 
organization.  These  characteristics  seem  to  have  been 
innate ;  but  the  significance  of  Roman  development  to 
the  history  of  progress  and  education  was  largely  due  to 
the  fact  that,  in  her  spread  over  the  civilized  world,  the 
Eternal  City  amalgamated  the  Greek  civilization  with 
her  own.  Until  then  her  ideals  of  life,  while  effective 
in  conquest,  had  been  narrow  and  little  adapted  to  the 
development  of  individuality  or  a  cosmopolitan  civili¬ 
zation.  Unconsciously  realizing  the  need  of  broader 
ideals,  she  absorbed  those  of  Greece.  But  Rome  could 
not  be  Hellenized  without  making  some  contributions  to 
the  result  from  her  own  genius,  and  for  that  reason  it  is 
important  to  learn  something  of  Roman  civilization  and 
education,  crude  as  they  were,  before  they  came  into 
contact  with  Greek  culture. 

Survey  of  Roman  History.  —  At  the  time  of  its  alleged 
foundation,  753  b.c.,  Rome  probably  consisted  of  a 
federation  of  Latin  clans  on  the  Palatine  and  adjacent 
hills.  It  was  governed  by  a  war-chief  or  king,  who  was 

230 


ROME  AND  THE  ROMAN  WORLD 


231 


also  judge  and  high  priest  in  times  of  peace ;  a  senate, 
composed  of  the  heads  of  the  three  hundred  clans ;  and 
a  popular  assembly,  made  up  of  all  freemen  capable  of 
bearing  arms.  These  came  to  be  known  as  patres 
(‘  fathers  ’)  or  patricians,  in  distinction  to  the  plebs 
(*  people  ’)  or  plebeians,  who  had  afterward  settled  in 
Rome,  and  were  not  represented  in  the  assembly. 

After  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  the  kings 
were  expelled  (509  b.c.)  and  most  of  their  power  trans¬ 
ferred  to  two  consuls  elected  for  one  year  and  to  the 
aristocratic  senate.  As  the  plebs  had  no  part  in  the 
government,  almost  immediately  a  struggle  to  secure 
recognition  began,  and  continued  with  little  intermission 
for  two  and  a  quarter  centuries.  Some  reforms  were 
gradually  secured  by  the  plebeians,  the  most  important 
of  which  was  the  revision  and  codification  of  the  laws  in 
45 1  and  450  b.c.  by  decemvirs  elected  for  the  purpose. 
The  resulting  code  included  the  laws  concerning  prop¬ 
erty,  political  rights,  and  religion,  that  had  been  previ¬ 
ously  approved  by  the  senate  and  assemblies.  Until 
then  the  laws  had  been  known  and  administered  exclu¬ 
sively  by  the  patricians,  but  they  were  at  this  time  cut 
upon  bronze  tablets,  set  up  in  the  market-place,  and 
ever  afterward  known  as  the  Twelve  Tables. 

Notwithstanding  this  extension  of  popular  rights,  the 
senate  remained  the  real  force,  as  the  assembly  was  un¬ 
wieldy,  and  the  magistracies  divided  their  powers  and 


The  Re¬ 
public  and 
the  struggle 
of  the  plebs. 


The  Twelve 
Tables. 


232 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Extension 
of  Roman 
dominion. 


Changes  in 
society,  and 
establish¬ 
ment  of  the 
Empire. 


were  brief  of  tenure.  This  caused  the  senate  to  feel  a 
responsibility  for  the  preservation  of  the  state,  and  pro¬ 
duced  a  stability  and  continuity  of  policy  that  made  pos¬ 
sible  large  conquests,  and  eventually  the  Empire.  Even 
during  her  internal  struggles  Rome  gained  the  hege¬ 
mony  of  the  Latin  tribes,  and  soon  extended  her  sway 
over  the  rest  of  Italy.  Then,  in  the  second  quarter  of 
the  third  century  b.c.,  she  began  to  advance  beyond  the 
peninsula.  In  the  three  Punic  wars  (264-241,  218-202, 
and  149-146  b.c.),  the  Romans  not  only  conquered,  but 
exterminated  their  rival,  Carthage ;  they  humbled 
Macedon  and  divided  her  Hellenic  kingdom  (197  and 
168  b.c.)  ;  conquered  Asia  Minor  (190  b.c.)  and  Illyricum 
(167  b.c.);  and  reduced  Greece  to  a  province  (146  b.c.). 

Thus  supremacy  over  the  entire  Mediterranean  coun¬ 
try  was  obtained,  and  great  social  changes  began  to 
appear  in  Rome.  The  religious  faith  and  the  old  stern 
ideals  of  duty  and  training  gradually  broke  up,  and  in 
their  place  ideas  of  religion  and  philosophy,  harmony 
and  culture,  were  introduced  from  Greece.  A  new  set 
of  patricians,  who  obtained  their  position  by  wealth 
rather  than  descent,  sprang  up.  The  power  of  the 
senate,  and  with  it  the  old  purity  and  patriotism,  van¬ 
ished  ;  and  the  last  century  of  the  Republic  was  filled 
with  struggles  centering  about  great  individuals,  —  the 
Gracchi,  Marius  and  Sulla,  Pompey  and  Caesar,  An¬ 
tony  and  Octavius.  The  old  representative  constitution 


/ 


ROME  AND  THE  ROMAN  WORLD 


233 


could  not  stand  the  strain,  and  gave  way.  In  48  b.c. 
Julius  Caesar  was  made  perpetual  dictator,  and  would 
have  become  monarch,  had  not  his  ambition  been  evi¬ 
dent  and  led  to  his  assassination.  The  opportunity  was 
thus  left  to  his  successor,  Octavius ;  but  not  until  27  b.c. 
did  the  latter  lay  aside  the  exceptional  powers  that  he 
had  assumed  four  years  previously  as  imperator  (‘  dicta¬ 
tor’),  and  become  emperor  in  real  earnest  with  the  title 
of  ‘Augustus.’  Even  then  he  preserved  all  the  old 
republican  forms,  but  while  magistrates  continued  to 
be  elected,  their  powers  and  those  of  the  senate  were 
gradually  assumed  by  the  emperor. 

While  Rome  was  undergoing  such  a  political  and 
moral  transition,  the  Greek  influence  had  started  that 
brilliant  period  of  letters  known  as  the  Age  of  Augus¬ 
tus.  This  development  reached  its  height  in  the  last 
years  of  the  Republic,  while  the  old  Roman  ideals  were 
still  somewhat  in  force.  Much  literature,  especially 
history  and  oratory,  was  produced.  These  were  the 
days  of  Caesar,  Sallust,  Nepos,  and  Cicero.  Also  poetry 
was  not  lacking,  as  the  philosophic  verse  of  Lucretius, 
the  lyrics  and  elegies  of  Catullus,  the  epic  and  bucolics 
of  Vergil,  and  the  odes,  satires,  and  epistles  of  Horace, 
bear  witness.  Philosophy  was  likewise  produced  by 
Cicero,  a  striking  work  on  education  by  Quintilian, 
and  a  whole  encyclopaedia  of  knowledge  by  Varro. 
In  fact,  while  the  Romans  could  not  equal  their 


Age  of 
Augustus. 


234 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Decline  of 
Rome. 


Greek  models  in  quality,  they  far  surpassed  them  in 
quantity. 

Despite  this  intellectual  flowering,  Rome  was  declin¬ 
ing,  although  for  almost  two  centuries  the  decay  is  not 
at  all  apparent.  On  the  contrary,  during  the  reign  of 
the  Twelve  Caesars,  her  empire  was  greatly  extended; 
while  much  peace  and  prosperity  resulted  from  the  rule 
of  the  Five  Good  Emperors,  who  succeeded  them.  To¬ 
ward  the  end  of  the  second  century  a.d.,  however, 
political  conditions  became  most  unstable,  and  the 
emperors  put  aside  all  pretense  of  observing  the  con¬ 
stitution.  Although  reforms  were  later  introduced 
by  Diocletian  (284-305  a.d.)  and  Constantine  (312- 
337  a.d.)  which  delayed  the  final  downfall,  from  this 
time  on  corruption  was  widespread.  The  emperor 
had  become  a  complete  despot,  except  as  far  as  a  large 
and  extravagant  army  dominated  even  the  throne;  a 
bureaucracy  controlled  the  government ;  the  court  was 
sunk  in  all  the  luxury  and  vice  of  the  Orient;  and 
tax  officials  and  governors  cheated  and  ground  down 
the  provinces.  Through  bribery  and  favoritism,  men 
were  raised  to  senatorial  rank.  This  class  had  now, 
of  course,  no  political  functions,  although  it  was  ex¬ 
empt  from  taxation  and  had  many  other  privileges. 
It  was  self-indulgent,  and  blind  to  the  sufferings  of 
the  less  fortunate,  and  deaf  to  their  needs.  Roman 
citizenship,  formerly  sought  so  eagerly  and  so  proudly 


ROME  AND  THE  ROMAN  WORLD 


235 


claimed,  now  came  to  be  regarded  as  a  misfortune, 
and  something  to  be  avoided,  if  possible.  Those  who 
remained  among  the  cunales ,  or  ordinary  class  of  citi¬ 
zens,  had  to  support  the  government,  municipal  and 
imperial,  and  the  army.  To  escape  from  these  bur¬ 
dens,  Romans  that  could  not  attain  senatorial  rank 
entered  the  army,  the  monasteries,  or  clerical  positions 
in  the  Church,  or  enrolled  themselves  as  serfs  of  some 
great  estate. 

Dissolution  was  not  long  delayed.  In  395  a.d.  the 
sons  of  Theodosius  divided  the  Empire  into  two  dis¬ 
tricts,  nominally  for  the  convenience  of  administration, 
but  really  because  of  radical  differences  in  type  of 
civilization.  The  Roman  or  Western  division  came 
gradually  under  the  control  of  German  tribes  that 
invaded  it,  and  finally,  in  476  a.d.,  the  German  leader, 
Odovaker ,  or  Odoacer,  deposed  the  youthful  Romulus 
Augustulus,  and  had  the  imperial  purple  sent  to  the 
emperor  at  Constantinople  as  a  sign  of  the  reunion  of 
the  empire.  Odoacer  himself,  however,  became  king 
of  Italy,  and  the  real  power  of  the  Western  empire 
was  thereafter  in  the  hands  of  the  Germans.  Italy 
was  never  fully  recovered ;  and  while  the  Eastern  or 
Greek  division  of  the  empire  continued  until  Constan¬ 
tinople  was  taken  by  the  Turks  in  1453  a.d.,  the  days 
of  ancient  Rome  and  the  Roman  world  had  passed 
forever. 


Odoacer 
becomes 
king  of  Italy. 


236 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Voluntary 
subordina¬ 
tion  of  the 
individual  to 
the  state. 


Utility,  rather 
than  har¬ 
mony  or 
grace,  ap¬ 
pealed  to  the 
Roman. 


Practical  Aim  of  Education  in  Early  Rome.  —  Obvi' 

ously,  a  people  with  such  an  environment,  traditions, 
and  history  as  the  Romans  would  have  a  very  different 
set  of  ideals  in  life  and  education  from  the  Greeks. 
In  the  early  days  they  were  animated  almost  entirely 
by  an  intense  patriotism,  reverence  for  law,  and  love  for 
military  life,  and  felt  that  each  citizen  was  bound  to 
merge  his  identity  in  that  of  the  state.  In  the  sur¬ 
render  of  individuality  they  were,  to  be  sure,  not  unlike 
the  Spartans,  although  they  believed  that  this  subordi¬ 
nation  should  be  brought  about  voluntarily  rather  than 
by  compulsion  of  law  and  state  organization.  But  with 
such  a  love  as  theirs  for  mere  material  achievement, 
the  Athenian  ideal  of  a  full  and  harmonious  develop¬ 
ment  of  one’s  whole  nature  could  scarcely  be  expected 
to  make  any  appeal.  They  looked  not  for  harmony, 
proportion,  or  grace,  but  for  stern  utility.  All  the 
aesthetic  pleasures  and  the  finer  sides  of  life  were  held 
in  contempt  by  them,  and  they  regarded  the  Greek 
thinkers  as  mere  visionaries.  They  showed  none  of  the 
youth  and  impulsiveness  that  was  characteristic  of  the 
Athenians,  but  were  sedate,  grave,  stern,  and  serious. 
Their  education  was,  accordingly,  practical,  prosaic, 
and  utilitarian. 

Informal  Acquisition  of  Abilities  and  Virtues.  —  Until 

the  Greek  institutions  began  to  be  adopted,  there  were 
practically  no  schools  in  Rome,  and  it  was  much  later 


ROME  AND  THE  ROMAN  WORLD 


237 


before  anything  approaching  a  public  school  system 
came  into  existence.  At  first,  education  consisted 
simply  of  a  practical  training  in  certain  abilities  and 
virtues  that  were  bound  up  in  the  Roman  ideals  and 
every-day  life.  The  chief  means  for  obtaining  this 
education  was  the  home,  which  was  the  most  important 
of  old  Roman  institutions. 

In  striking  contrast  to  the  Spartans  and  theorists 
like  Plato,  the  family  was  regarded  by  the  Romans  as 
almost  sacred,  and  the  power  of  the  father  (patriot, 
potestas)  often  extended  beyond  the  maturity  of  the  son 
or  the  marriage  of  the  daughter.  While  the  wife  was 
subordinate  to  her  husband  (in  manu  eius),  her  author¬ 
ity  within  the  family  was  scarcely  less  than  his,  and  she 
exerted  a  great  influence  upon  her  boys  as  well  as  upon 
her  girls.  The  traditional  picture  of  Cornelia,  the 
mother  of  Tiberius  and  Gaius  Gracchus,  is  a  graphic 
illustration  of  this.  In  early  life  the  boys  and  girls 
alike  were  given  a  physical  and  moral  training  by  the 
mother,  but,  as  the  boy  grew  older,  he  went  more  in  the 
company  of  his  father,  and  learned  efficiency  in  life 
informally  through  his  example  and  that  of  other  older 
men.  In  a  similar  way  the  girl  was  trained  at  home  by 
her  mother. 

If  the  boy  belonged  to  a  patrician  family,  he  might 
acquire  much  knowledge  concerning  Roman  custom 
and  law  by  seeing  his  father  receive  the  clientes  (‘  de- 


The  home 
as  the  chief 
means  of 
education. 


238 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Reading, 
writing,  and 
literature 
were  also 
learned 
through  the 
family. 


pendents  ’)  each  morning  and  give  them  advice  and  aid. 
He  could  likewise  learn  a  great  deal  from  the  older  men 
at  the  banquets  to  which  he  went  with  his  father.1  He 
might  also  receive  an  apprenticeship  training  from  his 
parent  or  some  other  older  man  in  the  profession  of 
soldier,  advocate,  or  statesman.  In  case  he  was  born  in  a 
less  exalted  station,  he  would  accompany  his  father  dur¬ 
ing  his  daily  duties  at  the  farm  or  the  shop,  and  so  learn 
the  occupation  of  his  parent.2  The  Roman  girl,  whatever 
her  social  status,  stayed  at  home  with  her  mother,  and 
was  trained  in  morals  and  the  domestic  arts,  especially 
spinning  and  weaving  wool  for  the  family  clothing. 

Through  their  parents  the  children  probably  learned 
also  whatever  reading  and  writing  would  be  necessary 
for  them  in  every-day  life.  They  also  committed  to 
memory  stories  of  prominent  men  of  the  past,  ballads, 
and  martial  and  religious  songs.1  After  the  codification 
of  the  Twelve  Tables ,  the  national  laws  had  especially 
to  be  memorized  by  the  young  Romans.  Physical 
training  was  secured  mostly  by  games,  which  were 
largely  in  imitation  of  future  occupations.  Gymnas¬ 
tics  were  employed  only  as  a  training  for. war;  the 


1  According  to  Cicero  (  Tusculanae  Disputationes ,  I,  2,  3)  and  Varro 
(quoted  by  Nonius,  p.  77),  at  the  banquets,  where  the  boys  often  accom¬ 
panied  their  fathers,  each  guest  was  required  to  sing  a  song  in  praise  of  the 
old  heroes. 

2  Industrial  life  was  not,  as  in  Greece,  considered  a  disgrace,  and  did 
not  deprive  one  of  his  citizenship. 


ROME  AND  THE  ROMAN  WORLD 


239 


Athenian  ideal  of  athletics  for  the  sake  of  grace  and 
ease  would  have  appeared  absurd  to  the  old  Romans. 

The  literature,  music,  and  dancing  of  the  Greek  curric¬ 
ulum  seemed  similarly  unpractical;  and  all  humanities, 
learning,  and  art  were  scorned  as  subject-matter  for 
education.  Culture  for  its  own  sake  was  an  ideal  quite 
foreign  to  the  Roman. 

The  usages  of  religion  at  home  and  in  public  did  Training  was 
much  toward  furnishing  a  training  for  the  youth.  The  Lbtatarf 
faith  of  the  Romans  was  of  a  very  practical  order,  and  religious 
consisted  largely  of  requirements  and  observances.  observances. 
Almost  every  activity  or  portion  of  an  activity  in  life, 
as  plowing,  sowing,  reaping,  gathering  the  harvest, 
vintage,  or  fruits,  was  presided  over  by  some  deity 
whom  it  was  necessary  to  propitiate  when  engaging 
in  it.  So  birth,  marriage,  and  death  had  special  di¬ 
vinities,  who  must  be  worshiped  at  the  proper  times. 

Even  Jupiter,  their  chief  deity,  was  regarded  only  as  a 
generalization  of  Roman  manhood,  as  was  Juno  of  the 
womanhood  of  Rome,  while  Mars,  their  next  greatest 
god,  was  a  personification  of  war.  This  can  hardly  be 
considered  a  lofty  religion ;  in  fact,  it  was  little  beyond 
the  ceremonies  of  primitive  people,  but  it  was  associated 
with  their  morals  and  kept  their  consciences  active. 

The  ethical  system,  to  be  sure,  was  of  an  institutional 
sort,  but  it  sanctified  family  ties,  patriotism,  and  duty, 
and  recognized  the  sacredness  of  oaths. 


240 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


The  Lares 
and  Penates, 
and  the  Ves¬ 
tal  Virgins. 


Religion  as 
a  state  affair. 


The  first  contact  the  Roman  boy  had  with  religion 
was  at  home  in  the  offerings  to  the  Lares  and  Penates , 
who  typified  the  unity  of  the  family.  The  Lares,  or 
spirits  of  departed  ancestors,  were  considered  the  pro¬ 
tectors  of  the  family  estate ;  while  the  Penates,  or 
deities  of  the  household,  guarded  the  provisions  and 
stores  of  the  family.  The  shrine  was  at  the  hearth, 
where  was  placed  the  image  of  the  chief  Lar  (‘  lord  ’) 
between  two  Penates.  Sacrifices  were  made  to  these 
divinities  each  morning  by  the  head  of  the  family  as 
priest,  and  special  exercises  were  held  upon  the  occa¬ 
sion  of  birthdays,  marriages,  the  assumption  of  the 
toga  virilis  (‘  garb  of  manhood  ’),  which  marked  arrival 
at  maturity,  and  upon  the  return  of  a  member  of  the 
family  that  had  been  long  absent.  Moreover,  the  gens 
(‘clan’)  was  regarded  merely  as  a  larger  family,  and 
had  a  common  altar  and  sacrifices ;  and  the  state  was 
similarly  considered  a  union  of  clans  with  sacrifices 
and  ceremonies  in  common.  The  priestesses  known 
as  the  Vestal  Virgins  acted  for  the  whole  state. 
They  guarded  the  public  hearth,  which,  with  its  fire 
that  was  never  allowed  to  die,  was  located  in  a  temple 
representing  an  atrium ,  or  the  main  room  of  a  Roman 
house. 

Religion  in  early  Rome  was,  therefore,  not,an  individ¬ 
ual  matter,  but  a  means  of  holding  together  family  and 
state.  Originally  the  king  was  the  chief  priest;  and, 


ROME  AND  THE  ROMAN  WORLD 


241 


after  the  Republic  was  established,  a  pontifex  maximus 
was  appointed  to  represent  the  state.  All  priests  were, 
in  general,  regarded  as  civil  functionaries  rather  than 
as  members  of  a  sacerdotal  class,  and  religious  observ¬ 
ances  became  a  species  of  training  in  citizenship. 

Thus  education  in  early  Rome  was  practical,  and,  to  a 
great  extent,  occupational.  It  was  calculated  to  pro¬ 
duce  efficiency  as  fathers,  citizens,  and  soldiers.  It 
consisted  in  training  the  youths  to  be  healthy  and 
strong  in  mind  and  body,  and  sedate  and  simple  in 
their  habits ;  to  reverence  the  gods,  their  parents,  the 
laws,  and  the  institutions ;  and  to  be  courageous  in  war, 
and  familiar  with  the  traditional  agriculture,  or  the  con¬ 
duct  of  some  business.  Hence  the  virtues  for  which 
they  struggled  and  which  constituted  the  abstract  ma¬ 
terial  of  their  training,  were  pietas ,  which  included  the 
observance  of  filial  duty  and  patriotism  as  well  as  worship 
of  the  gods  ;  constcintia ,  or  stability  of  character  ;  gravitas , 
signifying  seriousness  and  dignity;  the  valorous  quality 
of  fortitudo  or  virtus,  and  the  practical  business  virtue 
of  prudentia} 

Imitative  Method  of  Training.  — The  method  of  their 
education  clearly  was  not  through  instruction,  but  in¬ 
formal  training.  Definite  abilities  and  virtues  were 

1  Clarke  adds  to  this  list  of  desirable  virtues,  pudor  (‘modesty’);  while 
Monroe  includes  honestas  (‘fair  dealing  in  all  economic  relations ’).  All 
these  ideals  are  largely  inferred  from  the  laws  on  the  Twelve  7  ables. 

R 


Abstract 
virtues  at 
which  Ro¬ 
man  educa¬ 
tion  aimed. 


Living  ex¬ 
ample  was 
followed. 


242 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Their  train¬ 
ing  was 
effective  for 
a  small  state, 
but  required 
the  Hellenic 
ideals  when 
the  Romans 
had  spread 
over  Italy. 


inculcated  by  means  of  imitation.  “  Long  is  the  road 
through  precepts ;  short  and  effective,  through  exam¬ 
ples,”  is  Seneca’s  epigrammatic  way  of  approving  the 
Roman  method.  While,  however,  it  consisted  in  follow¬ 
ing  a  living  example  that  was  perfectly  possible  of 
attainment,  and  in  this  way  gave  more  play  to  person¬ 
ality  than  the  literal  obedience  to  the  sacred  books  of 
the  Oriental  training,  it  does  not  compare  with  the 
method  of  assimilation  in  the  Athenian  education, 
which  came  through  the  media  of  literature,  music,  and 
art,  and  permitted  of  so  much  latitude.  Neither  did 
the  Roman  method  include  any  subsequent  explanation 
of  the  acquisitions,  as  the  Greek  training  did,  and  so 
lacked  largely  in  rationality. 

Effect  of  the  Education  of  Early  Rome.  —  This  edu¬ 
cation  of  the  early  Romans  produced  a  nation  of 

warriors  and  loyal  citizens,  but  it  inevitably  tended 
to  make  them  calculating,  selfish,  overbearing,  cruel, 
and  rapacious.  They  never  possessed  either  lofty 

ideals  or  enthusiasm.  Their  training  was  best  adapted 
to  a  small  state,  and  became  unsatisfactory  when  they 
had  spread  over  the  entire  peninsula.  With  their 

conquest  of  Italy,  the  golden  age  of  valor  and  stern 

virtue  largely  departed,  and  they  began  unconsciously 
to  seek  a  more  universal  culture.  While  such  a 
people  regarded  the  Greeks  as  visionary,  just  as  the 
Greeks  looked  upon  them  as  barbarians,  they  felt 


ROME  AND  THE  ROMAN  WORLD 


243 


instinctively  that  only  by  absorption  of  the  Hellenic 
ideals  could  their  cosmopolitan  ambitions  be  carried 
out.  On  the  other  hand,  it  was  through  the  organi¬ 
zation  which  the  Romans  were  able  to  furnish,  that 
the  great  ideals  formulated  by  the  Greeks  were  des¬ 
tined  to  be  rendered  effective  and  become  a  matter 
of  value  and  concern  to  civilization  ever  since. 

Absorption  of  Greek  Culture.  —  The  gradual  infiltra¬ 
tion  of  Greek  culture  into  Rome  must  have  begun 
very  early.  Even  before  the  foundation  of  the  city 
there  were  Hellenic  colonies  in  Sicily  and  Magna 
Graecia,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  the 
decemvirs  are  said  to  have  gone  to  Greece  for  advice 
concerning  their  code  of  laws.1  Not,  however,  until 
the  spread  of  Hellenism  through  the  conquests  of 
Alexander  in  the  latter  half  of  the  fourth  century 
could  the  Romans  have  come  into  extensive  contact 
with  the  Greeks.  Even  then,  although  commercial 
and  diplomatic  intercourse  must  have  increased  im¬ 
mensely,  and  the  expanding  power  of  Rome  was 
necessitating  a  larger  type  of  civilization,  the  Greek 
influence  does  not  seem  to  have  been  very  great. 
But  after  the  humiliation  of  Carthage  in  the  third 
century,  and,  still  further,  the  downfall  of  Macedon 
in  168  b.c.,  Greek  ideals  must  have  made  considerable 
headway.  This  is  evidenced  by  the  encouragement 
given  to  Crates  of  Mallos,  a  Stoic  philosopher,  who 

1  See  p.  231. 


The  Romans 
began  early 
to  absorb 
the  Greek 
culture, 


244 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


but  not  until 
the  middle  of 
the  second 
century  was 
the  opposi¬ 
tion  to 
Hellenism 
really 
removed. 


came  to  Rome  in  167  b.c.  as  an  ambassador,  and, 
being  detained  by  an  accident,1  was  persuaded  to 
lecture  to  the  Roman  youth;  and  by  the  crowds  that 
flocked  to  hear  Carneades,  the  Academic,  and  Diony¬ 
sius,  the  Stoic,  a  dozen  years  later.  Suetonius  tells 
us  further  of  a  number  of  other  Greek  teachers  in 
Rome  about  this  time.  It  is  supposed,  too,  that  Cato’s 
treatise,  De  Liberis  Educandis  (‘How  Children  should 
be  Educated’),  shows  that  the  stern  old  censor  felt 
that  the  Greek  innovations  were  getting  too  influen¬ 
tial,  and  thought  it  necessary  to  protest  against  them 
by  emphasizing  the  old  practical  training  for  a  farmer, 
warrior,  orator,  or  advocate. 

Finally,  with  the  death  of  Cato  in  148  b.c.,  and  the 
conquest  of  Greece  two  years  later,  the  last  barrier  to 
Hellenism  may  be  considered  to  have  been  removed. 
Greeks  came  over  to  Rome  in  large  numbers,  and  intro¬ 
duced  more  and  more  their  philosophy,  religion,  art, 
science,  and  education.  It  became  obvious  that  the  Ro¬ 
mans  could  not  successfully  rival  or  oppose  the  Greek 
culture ;  and,  -as  no  other  seemed  cosmopolitan  enough 
to  suit  their  purpose,  they  began  rapidly  to  accept  it. 
There  followed  a  rapid  adaptation  of  Greek  ideals,  both 
in  intellectual  and  political  life.  By  the  beginning  of  the 
first  century,  if  we  may  judge  from  Cicero’s  statement 
that  the  old  training  had  completely  disappeared  during 

1  See  Suetonius,  De  Grammaticis,  II. 


ROME  AND  THE  ROMAN  WORLD  245 

his  early  life,  this  transformation  must  have  become 
complete. "  How  thoroughly  it  was  accomplished  is  well 
illustrated  by  comparing  the  old  simple  training  advo¬ 
cated  in  the  educational  work  of  Cato  with  the  treatise 
of  Varro  On  the  School  Sciences ,  which  seems  to  have 
included  all  the  Greek  studies,  —  grammar,  rhetoric, 
dialectic,  arithmetic,  music,  geometry,  and  astronomy, 
as  well  as  medicine  and  architecture. 

This  new  type  of  education  may  be  said  to  have 
remained  almost  unmodified  until  toward  the  end  of 
the  second  century  a.d.,  when,  as  previously  recounted,1 
the  Roman  Empire  began  most  rapidly  to  deteriorate. 
Hence,  during  the  last  century  before  Christ  and  the 
first  two  centuries  of  the  present  era,  a  new  type  of 
Hellenized  education  had  come  to  prevail  in  Rome,  in 
marked  contrast  to  that  which  was  indigenous. 

Schools  of  the  Hellenized  Roman  Education.  —  The 
absorption  of  the  Greek  learning  and  culture  was  largely 
aided  by  the  fact  that  Rome  had  no  distinct  educational 
institutions  of  her  own,  except  possibly  the  rude  elemen¬ 
tary  school  called  the  Indus ,  and  she  was,  therefore, 
the  more  readily  influenced  by  those  of  the  Greeks.  A 
fairly  complete  and  scientific  account  of  all  these  schools 
of  the  time  can  be  found  in  Quintilian’s  De  Institutions 
Oratoria  (‘On  the  Principles  of  Oratory’).  In  spite  of 
the  title,  this  work  is  not  limited  to  a  description  of  pro- 


Rome  had 
practically 
no  schools 
of  her  own, 
and  readily 
adopted 
those  of  the 
Greeks. 


1  See  pp.  234-235. 


246 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


If  Rome  had 
elementary 
schools  in 
early  times, 
they  were 
supplemen¬ 
tary  in 
purpose. 


Old  practical 

content 

gradually 


fessional  training,  but  treats  all  stages  of  education. 
This  treatise,  with  De  Grammaticis  (‘  On  the  Grammar¬ 
ians  ’)  and  De  Rhetoricis  (‘  On  the  Rhetoricians  ’)  by 
Suetonius,  Cicero’s  De  Oratore  (‘  Concerning  the  Ora¬ 
tor’),  and  the  vituperative  Dialogus  de  Oratoribus 
(‘  Dialogue  on  the  Orators  ’)  by  Tacitus,  furnishes  most 
of  our  information  concerning  the  Hellenized  Roman 
education,  as  well  as  a  description  of  the  educational 
institutions  of  the  period. 

Elementary  Schools.  —  Elementary  schools  may  well 
have  existed  before  the  process  of  Hellenization  even 
began,  but  this  is  doubtful.  The  assumption  is  largely 
based  upon  Livy’s1  account  of  the  seizure  of  Virginia 
while  on  her  way  to  school.  Dionysius2  similarly 
describes  the  occurrence,  and  the  tradition  may  have  had 
some  foundation.  If  the  Indus  (‘  play  ’  or  *  exercise  ’  3), 
as  the  elementary  school  was  called,  did  exist  as  far 
back  as  this  first  century  of  the  Republic,  it  must  have 
been  intended  simply  to  supplement  the  more  informal 
training  of  the  home.  From  the  name  given  it,  the 
early  Romans  would  seem  to  have  considered  it  some¬ 
thing  of  a  diversion  and  not  a  necessary  part  of  the 
regular  education. 

Whenever  they  did  originate,  these  schools  probably 
taught  at  first  only  reading,  writing,  and  rudimentary 

1  Bk.  Ill,  44.  2  Bk<  xi,  24. 

8  Compare  ‘  ludus  gladiatonus,'  *  ludus  militarist  ‘  ludus  jidicinust  etc. 


ROME  AND  THE  ROMAN  WORLD  247 

calculation,  as  in  the  home,  through  the  medium  of 
historical  anecdotes,  ballads,  religious  songs,  and  the 
Twelve  Tables.  Hence  they  were  sometimes  known  as 
the  school  of  the  litterator  (‘teacher  of  letters’).  But, 
as  the  Greek  influence  crept  in  more  and  more,  the 
literary  content  was  somewhat  extended.  About  the 
middle  of  the  third  century  b.c.,  Livius  Andronicus 
translated  the  Odyssey  into  Latin ;  and  a  number  of 
epics,  dramas,  and  epigrams  were  composed  after 
Greek  models  about  the  same  time,  or  a  little  later,  by 
Naevius,  Ennius,  Pacuvius,  Plautus,  and  Terence.  The 
effect  of  this  stimulation  of  Latin  literature  is  seen  in 
the  gradual  introduction  of  parts  of  these  works  into  the 
curricula  of  the  ludi,  and  the  eventual  displacement  of 
the  Twelve  Tables  about  the  beginning  of  the  first  cen¬ 
tury  b.c.  by  the  Latinized  Odyssey  of  Andronicus. 

In  this  elementary  education  the  Roman  boys  were 
taught  first  the  names  and  alphabetic  order  of  their 
letters,  without  learning  anything  with  regard  to  their 
significance  or  even  shape.  This  method  is  sensibly 
criticised  by  Quintilian  on  the  ground  that  it  “  hinders 
their  recognition  of  the  letters,  as,  while  they  follow 
their  memory,  they  do  not  fix  their  attention  on  the 
forms  of  the  letters.  ...  It  will  be  best  for  children, 
therefore,  to  be  taught  the  appearances  and  names  of 
the  letters  at  once,  as  they  are  taught  those  of  men.”  1 


became  more 
literary. 


Methods  of 
teaching 
reading, 
writing,  and 
calculation. 


1  Bk.  I,  I,  25. 


248 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


After  learning  their  letters,  the  pupils  seem  to  have 
committed  all  the  possible  combinations  in  the  way  of 
syllables,  and  were  then  taught  reading  and  writing  by 
means  of  exercises  dictated  by  the  master.  This  was 
because  books  were  scarce  and  expensive 1  until  toward 
the  close  of  the  second  century  b.c.  After  that  time  a 
large  number  of  slaves  were  employed  as  copyists,  and 
each  boy  was  enabled  to  have  his  own  book.  When  they 
had  learned  to  read,  special  attention  was  given  to  clear 
and  correct  pronunciation,  even  to  the  extent  of  practicing 
the  boys  on  difficult  combinations  of  words,2  and  to 
intelligent  expression.3  Writing  was  usually  taught  by 
copying  and  tracing  on  wax-tablets  with  a  stylus,  while 
the  hand  was  at  first  guided  by  the  teacher.4  Some¬ 
times  bits  of  parchment  were  also  used  for  practice. 
The  calculation  taught  was  but  rudimentary,  as  the 
Roman  numerals  were  very  cumbrous ;  and  it  was 
learned  by  counting  on  the  fingers,  or  by  means  of 
pebbles,  and,  after  the  pupils  had  some  facility,  with 
an  abacus  on  which  pebbles  or  sand  had  been  placed.5 
Eventually  their  sums  were  also  worked  upon  wax- 
tablets.  There  seem  to  have  been  special  teachers  of 
arithmetic,  who  sometimes  taught  in  schools  of  their 
own,  although  generally  also  in  the  regular  ludi. 

1  Books  would  have  been  much  more  rare,  had  it  not  been  for  the  speed 
with  which  skillful  slaves  were  able  to  copy  them. 

2  Quintilian,  Bk.  I,  I,  37.  3  Quintilian,  Bk.  I,  VIII,  I. 

4  Quintilian,  Bk.  I,  I,  27.  5  Persius,  1,  131. 


ROME  AND  THE  ROMAN  WORLD  249 

Thus  the  elementary  education  remained  somewhat  Memoriter 

J  character  of 

memoriter  and  imitative.  The  pupils  generally  repeated  the  methods 

,  ,  .,  , ,  ,  j  and  severity 

their  letters  and  syllables  aloud  until  they  had  com-  t^e  ^js_ 
rnitted  them.  As  a  reenforcement  of  interest  under  clPlme* 
these  circumstances,  it  is  not  surprising  that  discipline 
was  severe.  The  rod  ( ferula  or  virgci ),  the  lash  ( sen - 
tica  or  lorum ),  and  the  more  brutal  whip  ( flagellum ) 
are  mentioned  as  if  in  frequent  use  in  the  Roman 
schoolroom ;  and  throughout  Latin  literature  scnool- 
masters  have  such  suggestive  adjectives  connected  with 
their  names  as  scevus  (‘  ferocious  ’),  iracundus  (  iras¬ 
cible ’),  acerbus  (‘harsh’),  clamosus  (‘bawling’),  and 
plagosus  (‘fond  of  blows’).  So  Juvenal  declares  that 
he,  like  others,  has  ‘  flinched  from  the  rod  1  at  school , 
and  a  more  telling  method  of  punishment  is  shown  in 
a  fresco  of  Herculaneum,  in  which  one  boy  appears 
on  the  back  of  another  with  his  legs  held  by  a  third, 
while  the  master  beats  him  on  the  bare  back.  While 
corporal  punishment  probably  remained  throughout 
Roman  history  the  orthodox  method  of  securing  atten¬ 
tion,  in  the  time  of  Augustus  a  milder  type  of  extra¬ 
neous  interest  was  introduced,  when  rewards  in  the 
shape  of  books,  or  even  pastry,  began  to  be  offered. 

Theory,  too,  was  in  advance  of  practice,  for  Quintilian, 
the  great  educationalist  of  the  times,  says :  I  by  no 
means  approve  of  corporal  punishment,  though  it  be 

1  “  et  nos  ergo  manum  ferulse  subduximus,”  Satires,  1,  15* 


250 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Qualifica¬ 
tions,  re¬ 
muneration, 
and  social 
status  of  the 
teacher. 


The  pceda- 
gogus. 


a  received  custom,  and  Chrysippus1  makes  no  objec¬ 
tion  to  it.  fust,  because  it  is  a  disgrace,  a  punish¬ 
ment  for  slaves,2  and  an  affront ;  secondly,  because, 
if  a  boy’s  disposition  be  so  abject  as  not  to  be  amended 
by  reproof,  he  will  be  hardened  even  to  stripes ;  and 
lastly,  because,  if  one  who  regularly  exacts  his  tasks 
be  with  him,  there  will  not  be  the  least  need  of  any 
such  chastisement.”3 

Under  these  conditions,  elementary  teaching  could 
hardly  be  recognized  as  a  profession,  and  the  social 
standing  of  the  teacher  was  low.  No  license  or  quali¬ 
fications  were  required  to  teach  in  the  elementary 
schools,  and  the  remuneration  was  very  small.  The 
work  was  undertaken  largely  by  slaves  or  freedmen. 

The  Greek  custom  of  having  the  boy  accompanied 
to  and  from  school  by  a  slave  soon  came  to  be  imitated 
by  the  Romans.  This  functionary  was  sometimes 
called  p(zdagogns>  but  often  the  Latin  name  of  pedise- 
qims  (‘attendant’)  or  custos  (‘guardian’)  was  used. 
The  purpose,  as  in  Athens,  was  to  look  after  the 
manners  and  morals  of  the  boys ;  but,  while  the  slave 
was  more  carefully  selected  than  in  Greece,  he  was 
too  often  one  that  was  incapacitated  by  age  or  physical 
disability.  Usually  Greek  or  Syro-Greek  slaves  filled 

1  The  greatest  formulator  of  Stoic  doctrine. 

2  Compare  Plutarch,  De  Liberis  Educandis,  XII. 

3  Quintilian,  Bk.  I,  III,  14. 


ROME  AND  THE  ROMAN  WORLD 


251 


the  role,  and  besides  attending  to  the  character  of  their 
charges,  they  often  taught  them  a  little  conversational 
Greek.  When  their  duties  had  been  satisfactorily  com¬ 
pleted,  these  slaves  were  not  infrequently  manumitted. 

These  elementary  schools  had  but  poor  material 
equipment.  They  were  not  held  in  regular  school- 
houses  or  in  buildings  intended  for  educational  pur¬ 
poses,  but  in  a  single  room  of  a  building  put  to  other 
uses,  or  in  a  sort  of  booth  or  veranda  ( pergula ),  which 
was  roofed  in,  but  open  at  the  sides.  Good  illustra¬ 
tions  of  the  structures  were  found  in  the  frescoes  at 
Pompeii.  The  pupils  sat  on  the  floor,  or,  if  the  school 
were  on  the  street,  upon  stones,  and  rested  their 
tablets  upon  their  knees.  The  schools  were  quite 
bare  of  adornment. 

School  began  very  early  in  the  day.  “What  right 
have  you  to  disturb  me,  abominable  schoolmaster, 
cries  Martial,  “object  abhorred  by  girls  and  boys  alike? 
Before  the  crested  cocks  have  broken  silence,  you  be¬ 
gin  to  roar  out  your  savage  scoldings  and  blows.” 1 
The  hours  often  lasted,  too,  until  nightfall,  with  only 
a  short  intermission  in  the  middle  of  the  morning  for 
a  luncheon.  There  were,  however,  no  home  lessons, 
and  the  holidays  for  religious  and  public  festivals,  as 
well  as  every  nundince  (‘ninth  day’),  or  market  day, 
were  numerous.  Probably  also  there  was  a  consider- 

1  Martial,  Epig.>  Bk.  IX,  LXVIII. 


Material 
equipment 
ot  the  schools 
was  meager. 


School  hours 
were  long, 
but  holi¬ 
days  were 
numerous. 


Secondary 
education 
was  more 
literary  than 
that  of  the 
ludi. 


252  A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

able  bieak  in  the  hottest  season,1  and  no  attendance 
during  the  harvest  and  vintage. 

Grammar  Schools.  A  higher  training  was  given  in 
the  secondary  or  ‘grammar’2  schools.  These  were 
undoubtedly  of  Greek  origin,  and  were  taught  by  a 
grammaticus  (‘grammarian’)  or  litteratus  (‘liberally 
educated  ).  “  The  appellation  of  grammaticus ,”  Sue¬ 

tonius  states,  “was  borrowed  from  the  Greeks;  but 
at  first  the  Latins  called  such  persons  litterati And 
then  he  continues:  “Some  distinguish  between  a  lit - 
tciatus  and  a  httcrator ,  as  the  Greeks  do  between  a 
grammaticus  and  a  grammatistes ,  applying  the  former 
term  to  men  of  real  education,  the  latter  to  those 
whose  pretensions  to  learning  are  moderate.”3  Evi¬ 
dently  the  grammar  schools  gave  more  of  a  literary 
training  than  the  ludi,  but  it  is  difficult  to  say  exactly 
where  the  work  of  the  litterator  ended  and  that  of 
the  litteratus  began.  For  example,  the  grammaio- 
didascaleum ,  which  was  opened  by  Spurius  Carvilius4 
as  eai  ly  as  230  b.c.,  was  probably  not  a  real  grammar 
school,  although  it  may  have  gone  somewhat  beyond 
the  ordinary  elementary  work. 

1  Martial,  Epig.,  Bk.  X,  LXII. 

~  term  *s  usecl  here,  as  in  England,  or  during  the  early  days  of  the 
American  colonies,  of  a  secondary  school;  and  must  not  be  confused 
with  the  ‘grammar’  schools  of  the  United  States  to-day,  which  constitute 
the  higher  elementary  schools.  3  De  Grammaticis ,  IV. 

4  See  Plutarch,  Qucestiones  Romance ,  59. 


ROME  AND  THE  ROMAN  WORLD 


253 


Probably  the  grammar  schools  were  differentiated 
gradually  from  the  elementary.  Grammatici,  who 
taught  their  pupils  to  speak  and  write  Greek,  began 
to  appear.  At  first  the  language  was  used  merely  for 
practical  purposes,  and  no  idea  of  the  literature  was 
given,  but  it  was  soon  extended  so  as  to  include  a 
study  of  the  greatest  works,  especially  Homer,  as  in 
Greece  itself.  During  the  second  century  Crates 1  of 
Mallos  gave  instruction,  and  some  twenty  other  gram¬ 
matici  started  schools  at  Rome.  They  embodied  great 
improvements  in  method,  and  insisted  upon  wide  learn¬ 
ing  as  necessary  for  the  understanding  of  the  poets. 
Up  to  this  time  secondary  education  had  not  existed 
for  the  masses,  and  even  the  aristocratic  had  to  secure 
it  at  home  through  Greek  tutors. 

By  the  beginning  of  the  first  century  Latin  grammar 
schools  began  to  arise,  as  the  Latin  language  had  be¬ 
come  well  fixed,  and  Rome  possessed  considerable  litera¬ 
ture  of  her  own.  The  first  was  that  of  Lucius  yElius 
Praeconinus,  sometimes  called  Stilo  (‘  the  penman  ’), 
'who  is  said  to  have  had  Cicero  among  his  pupils.  The 
young  Roman  attended  both  the  Greek  and  the  Latin 
grammar  school.  As  regards  the  order  of  attendance, 
Quintilian  says :  “  I  prefer  that  a  boy  should  begin 

with  the  Greek  language,  because  he  will  acquire  Latin, 
which  is  in  general  use,  even  though  we  tried  to  pre- 


Gramm  ar 
schools 
taught  Greek 
literature. 


Latin 

grammar 

schools. 


1  See  p.  244. 


The  gram¬ 
matical  and 
literary 
courses  in 
these  schools. 


254  A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

vent  him ;  and  because  at  the  same  time  he  ought  first 
to  be  instructed  in  Greek  learning,  from  which  ours  is 
derived.  Yet  I  should  not  wish  this  rule  to  be  so  super- 
stitiously  observed  that  he  should  for  a  long  time  speak, 
or  learn,  only  Greek,  as  is  the  custom  with  most  people ; 
for  hence  arise  many  faults  of  pronunciation,  which  is 
viciously  adapted  to  foreign  sounds,  and  also  of  lan¬ 
guage,  in  which,  when  Greek  idioms  have  become  in¬ 
herent  by  constant  usage,  they  keep  their  place  most 
pertinaciously,  even  when  we  speak  a  different  tongue. 
The  study  of  Latin  ought,  therefore,  to  follow  at  no 
long  interval,  and  soon  after  to  keep  pace  with  the 
Greek.” 1 

While  the  head  of  each  grammar  school  determined 
his  own  curriculum,  and  the  state  did  not  interfere  in 
any  way,  the  schools  were  quite  uniform,  since  the 
teachers,  when  not  Greeks  themselves,  had  been  trained 
by  them,  or  had  their  course  approved  by  them.  The 
effort  of  these  schools  was  to  secure  a  mastery  of  the 
language  and  correctness  of  expression  through  famil¬ 
iarity  with  the  best  Greek  and  Latin  authors.  The 
curriculum  consisted,  according  to  Quintilian,  of  ‘the 
art  of  speaking  correctly,’  and  ‘the  interpretation  of 
the  poets  ’ ; 2  or,  in  other  words,  of  a  training  in  gram¬ 
mar  and  literature.  Grammar,  which,  with  the  practical 
Romans,  composed  the  larger  part  of  the  course,  must 
1  Bk.  I,  I,  12-14.  Compare  Bk.  I,  IV,  i.  2  Bk>  I?  IV>  2> 


ROME  AND  THE  ROMAN  WORLD 


255 


have  included  all  the  philology  that  was  known  at  the 
time,  phonetic  changes,  and  derivations,  as  well  as  drill 
on  the  parts  of  speech,  inflections,  syntax,  and  prosody, 
and  practice  in  composition  and  paragraphing. 

Literary  training  was  obtained  by  writing  para¬ 
phrases  of  the  authors,  both  through  abbreviation  and 
expansion  of  the  original;  by  textual  and  literary 
criticism ;  by  commenting  on  the  authors ;  and  by 
exercises  in  diction  and  verse-writing.  The  commen¬ 
taries  included  not  only  interpretation  of  meaning,  but 
explanations  of  the  allusions  to  ancient  mythology,  re¬ 
ligion,  history,  and  geography.  Hence  great  learning 
was  expected  of  the  grammaticus,  and  Quintilian  says : 
“  It  is  not  enough  to  have  read  the  poets  only.  Every 
kind  of  writer  must  be  studied,  not  only  on  account  of 
the  history  contained  in  them,  but  also  for  the  lan¬ 
guage  ;  for  words  often  derive  their  rights  from  the 
authorities  that  sanction  them.  Further,  grammar  can¬ 
not  be  complete  without  a  knowledge  of  music,  as  we 
have  to  treat  of  meters  and  rhythms  ;  nor  if  a  man  is 
ignorant  of  the  stars  can  he  understand  the  poets,  who, 
to  pass  over  other  points,  so  often  use  the  risings  and 
settings  of  constellations  as  indications  of  time.  Nor 
can  the  teacher  of  literature  be  ignorant  of  philosophy, 
not  only  because  of  many  passages  in  almost  all  poems 
derived  from  a  close  and  exact  knowledge  of  the  prob¬ 
lems  of  nature,  but  also  because  of  the  poems  of  Em- 


Exercises  in 
the  literary 
training. 


256 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Authors 

read. 


Text-books 
on  grammar. 


pedocles  in  Greek,  and  Varro  and  Lucretius  in  Latin, 
who  have  taught  the  doctrines  of  philosophy  through 
verse.”  1 

The  authors  that  furnished  the  material  for  literary 
criticism  were  mostly  poets.  Cicero  tells  us :  “  We 
(Romans),  who  have  all  our  learning  from  Greece,  read 
and  learn  these  works  of  theirs  (i.e.  the  poets)  from 
our  childhood ;  and  look  on  this  as  a  liberal  and  learned 
education.” 2  Homer  was  generally  read  for  the  in¬ 
spiration  of  his  theme  and  the  loftiness  of  his  style. 
Hesiod,  with  his  prudential  ethics  and  practical  sense, 
naturally  appealed  to  the  Romans,  while  various  dram¬ 
atists,  and  epic  and  lyric  writers,  are  advised  by  Quin¬ 
tilian.3  Among  the  Latin  poets  Vergil  stood  first. 
Shortly  after  his  death,  his  works  were  introduced  into 
the  curriculum,  and  soon  took  the  place  of  the  Ho¬ 
meric  poems.  During  the  Empire  there  was  a  reaction 
against  the  old  poets,  and  Horace,  Lucan,  and  Statius 
were  given  prominent  places  in  the  curriculum  of  the 
grammar  schools. 

Although  there  early  appeared  Latin  treatises  on 
grammar  for  schools,  such  as  those  of  Praeconinus  and 
Lucilius,  no  text-books  suited  to  pupils  existed  through¬ 
out  the  Republic.  Consequently,  some  Greek  text,  es¬ 
pecially  that  of  Dionysius  of  Thrace,  was  adopted  by 

1  Bk.  1,  IV,  4.  2  Tusc%  Disp'y  Bk.  11,  xi,  27. 

8  Bk.  I,  VIII,  5-1 1. 


ROME  AND  THE  ROMAN  WORLD 


257 


the  grammaticus.  The  first  Latin  grammar  for  schools 
must  have  appeared  early  in  the  first  century  of  the 
Christian  era.  It  was  written  by  Palaemon,  the  teacher 
of  Quintilian,  who  probably  embodied  the  substance  of 
it  in  his  own  treatise.  After  this  many  other  texts 
were  produced. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  Republic  there  was  a  tend¬ 
ency  to  keep  the  boys  longer  in  the  grammar  schools 
and  encroach  upon  the  field  of  the  higher  training  of  the 
rhetorical  schools  by  exercising  them  in  declamation  on 
ethical  and  descriptive  topics.  Quintilian1  complains 
of  this  as  bad  pedagogy,  since  the  pupils  undertook  ora¬ 
tory  before  they  were  ready,  and  neglected  the  more 
solid  preparation  of  linguistic  and  literary  drill  for  the 
sake  of  a  precocious  display.  Their  productions,  how¬ 
ever,  were  often  fairly  good,  as  a  definite  method  of 
writing  the  declamations  was  laid  down  for  them.  It 
consisted  of  some  seven  steps,  beginning  with  a  praise 
of  the  writer  or  man  of  prominence  who  had  furnished 
the  theme,  and  closing  with  a  hortatory  peroration. 

The  grammar  schools  included  other  studies  from  the 
Greek  learning,  but  gave  them  a  practical  bearing.  As 
arithmetic  had  previously  been  studied  to  enable  them 
to  make  business  calculations,  now  geometry  was  learned 
for  the  sake  of  mensuration,  and  astronomy  to  enable 
them  to  form  a  calendar.  A  crude  geography  was  also 


Encroach¬ 
ment  of  the 
grammar 
schools  upon 
the  rhetorical 
curriculum. 


Other  studies 
in  the 
secondary 
curriculum. 


S 


1  Bk.  I,  I,  24-25. 


258 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Method  of 
study  and 
discipline. 


sometimes  studied  for  practical  purposes.  Likewise, 
music  was  taken  up  from  the  standpoint  of  rhythm  and 
meter,  to  secure  the  proper  intonation  in  oratory.  It 
was  not  studied  as  an  art  or  for  playing  an  instrument, 
but  for  chanting  the  simple  melodies  of  the  Roman  re¬ 
ligion.  For  a  long  time  there  was  no  training  in  gym¬ 
nastics,  as  this  was  believed  to  contribute  to  idleness  and 
immorality,1  and  encroach  upon  one’s  time  and  strength ; 2 
and,  until  the  time  of  Nero,  no  athletic  festivals  were 
held.  Some  exercises  for  the  sake  of  health  and 
strength  were  at  length  added  to  the  curriculum,  but 
they  were  adapted  mostly  to  military  training.  Dancing 
was  more  violently  opposed,  and  even  Cicero  implies 
that  he  who  dances  must  be  either  crazy  or  drunk.3  In 
spite  of  this  criticism,  it  is  probable  that  dancing  appealed 
to  the  youth  and  was  found  useful  as  a  means  of  exercise 
and  improvement  of  the  carriage.  Thus,  with  the  ex¬ 
ception  of  the  literary  training,  most  of  the  subjects  in 
secondary  education  were  studied  superficially  and  en¬ 
tirely  from  a  utilitarian  standpoint. 

The  attitude  of  the  pupils  in  learning  the  literary  sub¬ 
jects  was  quite  passive.  The  passages  were  read  first 
by  the  teacher  and  then  by  the  pupils.  The  teacher 
probably  marked  the  ictus  in  every  foot  of  the  verse  by 

1  Cicero,  De  Republic^  IV,  4.  2  Seneca,  Episiulae ,  XV. 

3  “  Nemo  enim  fere  saltat  sobrius,  nisi  forte  insanit.”  See  Cicero,  Pro 
Murcna ,  VI,  13. 


ROME  AND  THE  ROMAN  WORLD 


259 


snapping  his  fingers  or  stamping  his  foot.  After  the 
reading  an  interpretation  was  given,  which  the  pupil  was 
obliged  to  take  down  verbatim  in  his  note-book.  Expla¬ 
nations,  often  trivial  and  pedantic,  of  all  incidents  and 
allusions  were  made  by  the  teacher,  and  the  text  and 
style  were  critically  examined.  A  commentary  of  Pris- 
cian  on  the  first  dozen  lines  of  Vergil’s  ALneid ,  which  is 
still  extant,  shows  rather  accurately  in  what  this  literary 
training  must  have  consisted.  With  such  a  burden  of 
memorizing,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  brutal  discipline 
of  the  elementary  schools  was  largely  continued  in  the 
secondary. 

The  accommodations  for  the  grammar  schools,  how¬ 
ever,  were  much  superior  to  those  of  the  elementary. 
The  schoolhouses  were  generally  additions  to  larger 
buildings,  and  opened  on  the  street.  They  were  fur¬ 
nished  with  benches  for  the  pupils  and  a  higher  seat  for 
the  teacher,  and  were  often  adorned  with  paintings  and 
sculpture,  especially  portraits  or  busts  of  authors  and 
scenes  from  history  or  mythology. 

Rhetorical  Schools.  —  About  the  time  of  the  conquest 
of  Greece  by  Rome,  a  higher  education  through  the 
foundation  of  schools  of  rhetoric  or  oratory  began  to 
grow  up.  This  completed  the  Hellenization  of  the 
Roman  training.  Suetonius  says:  “Rhetoric  also,  as 
well  as  grammar,  was  not  introduced  amongst  us  till 
a  late  period,  and  with  still  more  difficulty,  inasmuch 


Material 

equipment. 


Develop¬ 
ment  of 
Greek  and 
Latin  rhetor¬ 
ical  schools, 
in  spite  of 
opposition. 


260 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


as  we  find  that,  at  times,  the  practice  of  it  was  even 
prohibited.  In  order  to  leave  no  doubt  of  this,  I  will 
subjoin  an  ancient  decree  of  the  senate  as  well  as  an 
edict  of  the  censors.” 1  Then  he  gives  the  senatorial 
decree  of  161  b.c.,  which  banished  all  Greek  philoso¬ 
phers  and  rhetoricians,  and  the  edict  of  Gnaeus  Domitius 
Ainobarbus  and  Lucius  Licinius  Crassus,  issued  in 
92  b.c.,  disapproving  of  the  schools  of  the  Latin 
rhetoricians.  Rhetoric  would  thus  seem  to  have  been 
imported  during  the  second  century  to  Roman  soil  from 
the  Greek  rhetorical  schools,  which  had  resulted2  from 
the  sophistic  training.  It  “  gradually  manifested  itself 
to  be  a  useful  and  honorable  study,  and  many  persons 
devoted  themselves  to  it  both  as  a  means  of  defense 
and  of  acquiring  a  reputation.”  1  The  first  Roman  to 
attain  distinction  from  public  speaking  through  the 
study  of  rhetoric  was  Porcina,  who  flourished  during 
the  latter  half  of  the  second  century  and  was  looked 
to  as  a  model  by  the  Gracchi.  As  also  indicated  in 
the  passage  from  Suetonius,  Latin  rhetorical  schools, 
such  as  those  of  Plotius  and  Blandus,  appeared  during 
the  first  century  b.c.  as  a  sort  of  continuation  of  the 
declamation  in  the  grammar  schools,  but  were  shallow 
as  compared  with  those  of  the  Greeks.  In  spite  of  this 
and  the  disapproval  of  the  censors,  the  movement  sur¬ 
vived,  although  rhetorical  schools  of  either  sort  were  not 


1  De  Rhetoricis ,  I. 


2  See  217-218. 


ROME  AND  THE  ROMAN  WORLD 


261 


at  all  common  until  the  time  of  the  Empire.  Only  the 
first  families  availed  themselves  of  this  education,  and 
the  schools  were  patronized  mostly  by  those  who  intended 
to  become  orators  and  statesmen. 

But  while  these  schools  afforded  a  legal  and  forensic 
training,  and  were  decidedly  professional  as  compared 
with  the  cultural  work  of  the  grammar  schools,  they 
were  by  no  means  narrow,  if  one  may  judge  from 
the  descriptions  of  Cicero  and  Quintilian.1  These  au¬ 
thors  hold  that  the  orator  is  not  to  be  merely  a  pleader 
at  the  bar,  but  should  take  an  interest  in  all  public 
matters.  Fluency,  eloquence,  and  an  acquaintance  with 
law  and  history  will  not  suffice  for  him ;  he  must  have 
these  qualifications,  but  he  must  also  possess  wide  learn¬ 
ing,  grace,  and  culture,  a  knowledge  of  human  emotions, 

* 

good  judgment,  a  good  memory,  and,  above  all,  virtue. 
He  is  simply  a  philosopher,  who,  through  preference 
and  special  fitness,  is  engaged  in  practical  affairs.  So 
these  schools  of  rhetoric,  besides  a  knowledge  of  the 
technique  of  oratory,  furnished  a  linguistic,  literary,  and 
scientific  education  of  broad  scope,  and  even  a  training 
in  philosophy,  especially  Stoicism.  They  thus  covered 
all  the  subjects  later  included  under  the  Seven  Liberal 
Arts,  —  grammar,  rhetoric,  and  dialectic,  and  music,  arith¬ 
metic,  geometry,  and  astronomy,  although,  as  would  be 

1  See  Cicero,  De  Oratore ,  Bk.  I,  V-VI,  and  XIV;  Quintilian,  Bk.  II, 
XXI,  and  Bk.  XII,  I. 


Cultural  as 
well  as  pro¬ 
fessional 
content. 


262 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Method  of 
training  in 
oratory. 


expected,  these  studies  were  all  given  something  of  a 
practical  turn.  Music,  Quintilian  shows,  will  help  the 
orator  with  his  gestures,  collocation  of  words,  and  in¬ 
flections  of  the  voice ;  geometry  aids  him  to  determine 
boundaries  in  lawsuits;  and  dialectic  assists  him  in 
argument  and  the  detection  of  fallacies ;  while  as¬ 
tronomy  enables  him  to  understand  the  movement 
of  the  heavenly  bodies,  and  not  be  misled  by  super¬ 
stition.1 

From  Cicero  2  we  may  gather  something  of  the  method 
employed  in  the  technical  training  in  rhetoric.  It  seems 
to  have  consisted  first  of  exercises  in  declamation  on 
ethical  and  political  subjects.  These  themes  were  in¬ 
tended  to  bring  out  the  fine  distinctions  of  which  Roman 

law  and  ethics  were  capable,  and  much  ingenuity  was 

« 

shown  in  inventing  instances  where  legal  or  moral 
principles  would  come  in  conflict.  After  this,  more 
advanced  work,  accompanied  by  lectures,  was  engaged 
in.  The  students  were  given  practice  in  three  types  of 
speeches :  deliberative,  which  considered  what  ought 
to  be  done  under  given  circumstances;  judicial,  in  which 
the  pupil  assumed  the  role  of  an  advocate  for  the  plain¬ 
tiff  or  defendant;  and  panegyric,  in  praise  or  censure 
of  some  one.  Attention  was  given  to  all  the  various 

factors  in  making  a  successful  oration  :  the  matter ; 

'  • 

1  See  Quintilian,  Bk.  I,  X,  22,  37,  and  46. 

2  De  Oratorc,  Bk.  I,  XXXI-XXXIV. 


ROME  AND  THE  ROMAN  WORLD 


263 


arrangement  into  exordium,  statement,  argument,  ampli¬ 
fication,  and  rebuttal;  the  style;  accuracy  in  memoriz¬ 
ing;  and  dignified  and  graceful  delivery. 

The  Roman  youth  that  received  a  rhetorical  educa¬ 
tion  usually  began  when  he  laid  aside  his  boyhood 
dress,  the  toga  prcetexta ,  to  assume  the  garb  of  man¬ 
hood,  or  toga  virilis ,  that  is,  at  about  the  age  of  sixteen. 
The  length  of  time  that  he  studied  depended  largely 
upon  his  ability  and  the  school  to  which  he  went,  but 
it  seems  to  have  been  usually  a  matter  of  two  or  three 
years. 

Education  beyond  the  Rhetorical  Schools.  —  Besides 
the  training  of  the  rhetorical  school,  many  of  the  wealthy 
homes  of  Rome  had  a  philosopher  attached,  with  whom 
the  youth  of  the  family  came  in  contact  and  learned 
much  informally  while  still  in  school.  Moreover,  when 
the  young  man  had  completed  his  course  at  a  rhetorical 
school,  he  might,  if  he  were  very  ambitious,  go  to  the 
university  at  Athens,  Alexandria,  or  Rhodes.  Soon 
other  universities  sprang  up  at  Rome  and  elsewhere 
throughout  the  Empire.  Alexandria  had  a  second 
museum  added  to  it  by  Claudius  in  54  a.d.  In  408 
a.d.  Theodosius  II  increased  the  number  of  professors 
and  strengthened  the  university  at  Constantinople,  which 
was  known  as  the  Capitolium.  In  Asia  Minor  a  num¬ 
ber  of  universities  arose.  The  Greek  influence  caused 
most  of  these  institutions  to  be  located  in  the  East,  but 


Age  for 

rhetorical 

training. 


Some  of 
the  wealthy 
families  kept 
a  philosopher 
to  train  their 
youth. 


University 

training. 


264 


A:  history  of  education 


Origin  and 
work  of  the 
universities. 


Women  were 
often  given 
considerable 
training, 
although 
they  had 
not  equal 
privileges. 


the  flourishing  university  at  Massilia 1  was  an  exception 
to  the  rule. 

Many  of  these  Roman  universities  found  their  nucleus, 
somewhat  as  Alexandria  did,  in  one  of  the  many  libraries 
that  were  started  with  books  brought  from  the  sacking 
of  Greece  and  Asia  Minor,  and  were  added  to  after  the 
Roman  literature  itself  began  to  come  to  its  zenith. 
The  university  of  Rome  was  one  of  these.  It  sprang 
from  a  library  founded  by  Vespasian  in  the  Temple  of 
Peace  about  75  a.d.,  and  half  a  century  later,  through 
the  addition  of  professors  and  a  splendid  building, 
Hadrian  organized  it  into  the  Athenceum .  Here  at  first 
courses  in  liberal  arts,  especially  grammar  and  rhetoric, 
were  given;  and,  somewhat  later,  professional  work  in 
law,  medicine,  architecture,  and  mechanics  was  added. 
There  was,  however,  no  effort  at  philosophic  speculation 
or  scientific  investigation. 

Education  of  Women.  —  After  the  early  days  women 
were  given  a  great  deal  of  liberty  and  often  had  con¬ 
siderable  culture.  The  girls  probably  attended  the  same 
elementary  schools  as  the  boys.  Women  were  not,  how¬ 
ever,  able  to  obtain  equal  opportunities  with  men,  and 
generally  had  to  secure  any  higher  training  through  ' 
tutors  at  home,  or  possibly,  after  marriage,  from  their 
husbands.  Nevertheless,  the  attitude  of  the  times  was 
very  liberal.  Musonius,  who  wrote  in  Greek  upon  edu- 


1  Now  Marseilles. 


ROME  AND  THE  ROMAN  WORLD 


265 


cation,  and  fragments  of  whose  work  appear  in  the 
Anthology  of  Stobaeus,  took  special  interest  in  the  edu¬ 
cation  of  women,  as  the  following  quotation  shows  :  — 

“  The  philosopher  (after  referring  to  the  analogy  fur¬ 
nished  by  the  identical  training  received  by  both  the 
males  and  females  of  two  of  the  species  of  animals  em¬ 
ployed  by  men  to  render  them  active  service,  —  horses 
and  dogs)  asks  whether  men  ought  to  receive  any 
special  education  and  training  superior  to  those  allowed 
to  women,  as  if  both  alike  should  not  acquire  the  same 
virtues,  or  if  it  is  possible  for  the  two  sexes  to  attain  the 
same  virtues  other  than  by  the  same  education.  ...  If 
any  one  asks  me  what  science  is  to  preside  over  this  in¬ 
struction,  I  shall  reply  that,  as  without  philosophy  no  man 
can  be  rightly  instructed,  so  neither  can  any  woman.” 

Education  Subsidized  and  Systematized. — Thus  through 
the  gradual  adoption  of  the  institutions  of  the  Greeks, 
Roman  education  became  thoroughly  Hellenized.  Al¬ 
though  all  the  types  of  schools  spread  everywhere 
throughout  the  empire,  there  was  no  real  public  school 
system,  except  as  the  government  gradually  came  to 
subsidize  the  schools  and  so  acquire  control.  This  was 
accomplished  in  various  ways,  —  by  contributing  to 
school  support,  paying  the  salaries  of  certain  teachers 
or  granting  them  special  privileges  and  distinctions,  or 
offering  scholarships  to  a  given  number  of  pupils.  Thus 
Julius  Caesar,  who  intended  to  inaugurate  a  universal 


Recommen¬ 
dations  of 
Musonius. 


Imperial 
aid  to  the 
schools 
through 
salaries, 
scholarships, 
and  privi¬ 
leges. 


¥ 


266  A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

empire,  granted  the  franchise  to  all  foreign  teachers  al¬ 
ready  in  Rome,  and  offered  it  to  any  others  who  should 
come;  and  Augustus,  in  banishing  foreigners  from 
Rome,  made  an  exception  in  favor  of  teachers.  Vespa¬ 
sian  (70-79  a.d.),  however,  established  the  first  real 
endowment  of  education  by  paying  salaries  of  one  hun¬ 
dred  sestertia  ($4000)  from  the  imperial  treasury  to 
each  Greek  rhetorician  in  Rome,  Quintilian  probably 
being  the  first  to  receive  the  benefit. 

Throughout  the  second  century,  this  policy  was  con¬ 
tinued,  especially  by  Hadrian;  extended  by  Antoninus 
Pius  to  the  provinces;  and  enlarged  by  Marcus  Aurelius, 
who,  in  addition,  granted  a  public  salary  to  two  rhetori¬ 
cians  and  two  teachers  of  philosophy  in  each  of  the  four 
schools  at  Athens.  Trajan  also  gave  scholarships  to  five 
thousand  children.  Besides  paying  salaries,  Antoninus 
Pius  exempted  from  taxation,  both  imperial  and  munici¬ 
pal,  and  from  army  service  and  support  of  the  soldiery 
a  given  number  of  philosophers,  rhetoricians,  and  gram¬ 
marians  in  all  cities,  somewhat  in  accordance  with  their 
size. 

Even  the  later  emperors  paid  great  attention  to  the 
extension  of  educational  privileges.  During  the  reign 
of  Alexander  Severus  (222-235  a.d.)  many  schools  and 
scholarships  were  founded.  Constantine  in  three  differ¬ 
ent  decrees  (321-333  a.d.)  extended  considerably  the 
privileges  of  teachers,  and  thereby  laid  the  foundation 


ROME  AND  THE  ROMAN  WORLD 


267 

for  the  special  rights  afterward  granted  the  clergy. 

Gratian  (3/8—383  a.d.)  went  still  further  in  subsidizing 
education,  and  offered  to  give  a  like  amount  with  each 
municipality  toward  the  salaries  of  the  grammarians 
and  rhetoricians  in  each  of  the  seventeen  capitals.  His 
coadjutor  and  successor,  Theodosius,  gave  the  profession 
its  final  advancement  by  raising  the  most  distinguished 
of  the  rhetoricians  to  the  rank  of  count. 

In  this  way  the  control  of  the  schools  came  more  Control  of 
and  more  into  the  hands  of  the  imperial  government.  h/thf00'5 
Julian  the  Apostate,  shortly  after  becoming  emperor  (361  cmPeror> 
a.d.),  demanded  the  right  to  pass  upon  all  teachers ;  and 
it  was  at  length  promulgated  by  Theodosius  and  Valen- 
tinian  in  425  a.d.  that  the  emperor  was  the  sole  authority 
entitled  to  establish  schools,  and  that  a  penalty  would 
be  exacted  from  any  one  else  assuming  this  prerogative. 

Decay  of  Education.  —  Before  this  control  had  been  Anachro- 
established,  however,  Roman  education  had  greatly  ditTonoT" 
deteriorated.  With  the  political  and  moral  decay  of  educatlon- 
the  empire  previously1  described,  education  declined 
correspondingly.  It  became  a  mere  form  and  mark 
of  the  aristocracy.  It  was  a  necessary  qualification 
for  entering  the  senatorial  class,  which  was  now  com¬ 
posed  mostly  of  the  favorites  of  the  emperor  or  of 
merely  wealthy  men.  Thus  education  had  lost  its  real 
purpose.  There  was  no  longer  any  occasion  for  a  train¬ 
ing  in  oratory,  as  the  emperor  controlled  all  the  func- 

1  See  pp.  234-235. 


268 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Predomi¬ 
nance  of  the 
Christian 
schools. 


tions  of  government  and  law;  and,  while  the  schools 
still  existed  and  taught  oratory,  it  was  simply  as  a 
survival,  and  they  were  not  intended  to  furnish  a  train¬ 
ing  of  any  value  in  life. 

The  careful  grammatical  and  literary  preparation 
recommended  by  Quintilian  was  more  and  more  shirked. 
Philosophy  and  law  were  no  longer  taught,  and  most  of 
the  time  was  spent  upon  rhetoric,  with  a  modicum  of 
grammar.  Vergil  was  almost  the  only  author  read, 
and  his  work  was  analyzed  and  dissected  rather  than 
appreciated.  Rhetoric  no  longer  dealt  with  real  life, 
but  aimed  at  an  exhibition  in  the  theater  or  before  a 
private  audience,  and  consisted  of  an  abundant  vocabu¬ 
lary,  superficiality,  and  glibness.  While  the  gram¬ 
marians  and  rhetoricians  were  still  held  in  high  esteem, 
they  contented  themselves  with  mere  display.  Wander¬ 
ing  lecturers,  similar  to  the  sophists,  went  from  town  to 
town,  but  more  for  the  purpose  of  entertaining  than 
teaching,  and  people  rushed  to  hear  them  declaim, 
much  as  moderns  flock  to  hear  a  popular  preacher. 
Glittering  phrases,  epigrams,  and  other  artificialities 
took  the  place  of  instruction  and  argument. 

Gradually  the  Christian  schools  combined  with  the 
old  Graeco-Roman  training,  and  eventually  replaced  it. 
After  the  fourth  century,  ecclesiastical  education  through 
the  episcopal  and  monastic  schools  became  predominant; 
and  by  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  the  monasteries 


ROME  AND  THE  ROMAN  WORLD 


269 


were  in  full  control  of  the  situation,  and  the  period 
we  know  as  the  Middle  Ages  was  well  under  way. 

Effect  of  Roman  Education  upon  Civilization.  —  But 
the  Roman  education  and  civilization  had  left  their  im¬ 
press  upon  the  world.  This  was  accomplished  by  the 
practical  nature  of  the  Roman,  and  the  amalgamation 
of  this  characteristic  with  the  ideals  and  culture  of 
the  Greeks.  The  Romans  were  originally  trained  in 
certain  definite  duties  and  virtues  through  an  informal 
and  imitative  education  in  the  home  and  the  activities  of 
life ;  but  when  they  had  become  Hellenized  and  had 
absorbed  the  Greek  educational  institutions,  they  in 
turn  modified  the  great  ideals  presented  to  the  world 
by  the  Greeks,  and  through  their  practicality  supplied 
the  means  of  carrying  out  those  ends. 

The  Hellenic  concepts  of  intellectual  power  and 
aesthetic  enjoyment  and  the  Jewish  ideal  of  moral 
force  were  made  concrete  and  furnished  with  institu¬ 
tions  that  enabled  them  to  be  useful  to  civilization  and 
progress.  Through  them  the  Greek  notion  of  a  feder¬ 
ated  government  was  expanded  into  that  of  a  universal 
empire,  and  the  organization  that  made  this  possible  was 
elaborated.  This  practical  concept  has  been  influential 
throughout  the  world’s  history,  as  can  easily  be  seen 
from  the  idea  of  a  reunited  empire  held  by  Charle¬ 
magne,  Otto,  and  Napoleon,  and  reflected  in  the  titles 
of  the  German  and  Russian  monarchs  to-day.  Similarly, 


Combination 
of  Roman 
practicality 
with  Greek 
ideals, 


and  the 
effect  upon 
progress. 


270 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


the  concept  of  law  originating  with  the  Greek  philoso¬ 
phers  became  in  the  hands  of  the  Romans  a  great 
system  of  principles  that  underlies  and  guides  all 
our  present  civilization.  Roman  jurisprudence  is  the 
foundation  of  modern  law  everywhere.  Finally,  it  was 
by  means  of  the  Roman  genius  for  organization  that  a  de¬ 
spised  religious  sect  was  institutionalized  and  expanded 
into  the  position  of  the  greatest  world  religion.  Through 
the  administrative  power  of  Rome,  Christianity  became 
the  means  of  saving  Europe  from  sinking  into  barbarism, 
and  ever  since  it  has  been  the  schoolmaster  of  civilization. 

So  if  it  be  true  that  Judaism  furnished  the  world  with 
its  most  exalted  religious  ideals,  and  from  Hellenism 
came  our  most  striking  intellectual  and  aesthetic  con¬ 
cepts,  it  is  as  worthy  of  note  that  the  institutions  for 
realizing  these  ideals  originated  with  Rome.  Despite 
the  economic  and  moral  decay  and  the  political  dis¬ 
solution  that  followed  closely  upon  the  absorption  of 
Hellenism  and  the  growth  of  universal  empire,  Rome’s 
ideals  and  social  products  still  stand  as  monuments  in 
the  world’s  civilization. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 
I.  Sources 

Scattered  references  to  education  during  the  different  periods 
appear  throughout  the  Roman  writers,  but  more  extended  descrip¬ 
tions  are  found  in  the  following  works  :  — 


ROME  AND  THE  ROMAN  WORLD 


271 


Aurelius,  Marcus.  Meditationes. 

Cicero.  De  Officiis ,  De  Or  at  ore,  De  Republica ,  Pro  Archia ,  and 
Disputationes  Tusculance . 

Martial.  Epigrammaton,  IV,  IX,  X,  and  XII. 

Musonius.  See  Anthologion  of  Stobaeus. 

Pliny.  Epistulae. 

Quintilian.  De  Institutione  Oratoria. 

Seneca.  Epistulae  Morales. 

Suetonius.  Divus  Augustins,  De  Grammaticis ,  and  De  Rhetor icis. 

Tacitus.  Agricola ,  Annales ,  and  especially  Dialogus  de  Ora- 
toribus. 

The  Twelve  Tables  afford  an  idea  of  the  content  of  early  edu¬ 
cation. 

Monroe’s  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education  ( Greek  and 
Roman  Period )  should  be  consulted. 


II.  Authorities 

1 

4 

Becker,  W.  A.  Gallus.  Scene  First  and  Excursus  on  Education. 
Clarke,  G.  Education  of  Children  at  Rome. 

Davidson,  T.  Aristotle.  Bk.  IV,  Chap.  II. 

Davidson,  T.  Education  of  the  Greek  People.  Chap.  IX. 

Dill,  S.  Roman  Society  from  Nero  to  Marcus  Aurelius. 

Dill,  S.  Roman  Society  in  the  Last  Century  of  the  IV estern  Empire. 
Jullien,  E.  Les  Professeurs  de  Litterature  dans  Vancienne  Rome. 
Laurie,  S.  S.  Pre-Christian  Education.  The  Aryan  Races  (D). 
Mahaffy,  J.  P.  The  Greek  World  under  Roman  Survey. 
Marquardt,  J.  Das  Privatleben  der  Romer . 

Mommsen,  T.  The  History  of  Rome. 

Monroe,  P.  Text-book  in  the  History  of  Education.  Chap.  IV. 
Sandys,  J.  E.  A  History  of  Classical  Scholarship ,  Vol.  I  (second 
edition). 

Thomas,  E.  Roman  Life  under  the  Ccesars.  Chaps.  IX-XI. 
Wilkins,  A.  S.  Roman  Education. 


CHAPTER  XIV 


EARLY  CHRISTIANITY 


With  these 
peoples 
began  a  con' 
sideration 
for  ideals 
and  the 
future,  and 
so  for  indi¬ 
vidualism, 


Beginnings  of  Individualism  among  the  Jews,  Greeks, 
and  Romans.  —  The  three  great  peoples  of  antiquity, 
the  Jews,  Greeks,  and  Romans,  through  their  civiliza¬ 
tion  and  educational  practice,  jointly  made  a  large 
contribution  to  progress.  With  each  are  evident  the 
beginnings  of  a  consideration  of  the  future  rather  than 
of  the  past,  and  an  attempt  to  develop  humanity  in 
accordance  with  ideals  rather  than  traditions.  Among 
the  Jews  the  world’s  loftiest  conceptions  of  religion,  and 
of  moral  personality  and  responsibility,  had  their  begin¬ 
ning;  out  of  Hellenism  have  developed  the  most  ad¬ 
vanced  intellectual  and  aesthetic  ideas  that  civilization 
has  known;  while  the  means  of  rendering  all  these 
ideals  practical  and  of  carrying  them  into  effect  sprang 
largely  from  the  organizing  power  of  the  Romans. 
Through  these  peoples  the  value  of  the  individual  to 
progress  became  evident  for  the  first  time  in  history, 
and  no  longer  was  he  held  absolutely  subservient  to  the 
social  whole.  From  this  time  on  society  can  no  longer 
be  described  as  entirely  in  bondage  to  nature  or  con- 
vention,  or  as  practically  tied  to  the  present  or  the  past. 


272 


EARLY  CHRISTIANITY  273 

The  emphasis  upon  individuality  and  the  future  has 
begun. 

Naturally  these  first  essays  were  not  completely  sue-  but  it 
cessful.  With  the  Athenians  and  the  Romans,  never  come  uni 
more  than  one  tenth  of  the  entire  population  at  best  versal* 
could  obtain  the  advantages  that  paved  the  way  to  indi¬ 
viduality  in  thought  and  conduct;  and,  while  Judaea 
was  quite  democratic  in  theory,  the  proportion  of  those 
eligible  among  her  people  was  not  much  larger,  and  the 
magnitude  of  her  development  was  obscured  by  cere¬ 
monial  and  formalism.  Each  of  these  peoples,  too, 
possessed  its  own  narrow  group  of  traditions,  customs, 
and  laws,  its  own  language,  and  its  own  gods.  While 
some  prophets  and  philosophers  1  may  have  caught  a 
vision  of  the  brotherhood  of  man  and  the  immanence 
of  the  divine,  such  an  idea  was  regarded  largely  as  a 
dream.  With  each  of  the  three,  all  other  peoples  were 
considered  inferior  and  beyond  the  pale.  Slavery  was 
widely  sanctioned,  and,  although  some  possibility  of 
manumission  was  believed  in,  it  was  held  that  always 
some  people  are  by  nature  slaves.  Not  only  were  the 
masses  and  foreigners  disregarded  or  enslaved ;  but 
women,  while  sometimes  kindly  treated,  were  generally 
regarded  as  man’s  subordinates,  and  among  the  Greeks 

1  Especially  Socrates,  in  whose  teachings,  whether  he  was  conscious  of 
it  or  not,  was  implicit  the  conception  of  the  brotherhood  of  man.  See 
Davidson,  The  Education  of  the  Greek  People ,  p.  118. 


T 


274 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Christianity 
recognized 
the  brother¬ 
hood  of 
man,  and 
gave  to 
women  and 
children 
their  rights, 
and  thus 
made  indi¬ 
vidualism 
universal. 


and  Romans  it  was  held  that  children  might  be  slain  or 
exposed  to  die  at  the  convenience  of  their  parents  or 
the  state. 

Larger  Ideals  of  Christianity.  —  The  world  had  need 
of  a  wider  view  and  a  larger  bond  of  unity.  Judaea, 
Greece,  and  Rome  had  to  pause  after  establishing  the 
beginnings  of  individualism  and  progress.  But  new 
ideals  were  destined  to  be  found  in  the  principles  of 
Christ,  which  were  first  promulgated  about  this  time  in 
an  obscure  corner  of  the  Roman  Empire.  These  teach¬ 
ings  had  their  roots  in  Jewish  soil;  they  recognized  the 
one  living  God  spoken  of  by  the  prophets,  the  faith  in 
humanity,  and  the  joy  of  heart  common  to  the  Israel¬ 
ites  ;  but  they  tended  to  strip  away  the  ceremonialism 
and  peculiar  observances  as  unessential,  and  inculcated 
a  broader  interpretation  of  humanity.  Without  pretense 
at  philosophic  statement,  Jesus  suggested  the  father¬ 
hood  of  God  as  the  basis  of  human  unity.  As  a  corol¬ 
lary  to  this  lofty  conception,  with  its  incumbent  ideals 
of  gratitude  and  love,  he  taught  the  brotherhood  of  all 
mankind.  “  These  things  I  command  you,”  said  he, 
“that  ye  love  one  another.”  “Therefore,  all  things 
whatsoever  ye  would  that  men  should  do  to  you,  do  ye 
even  so  to  them.”  This  law  was  destined  to  obliterate 
the  distinction  between  bond  and  free,  rich  and  poor, 
and  under  it  not  only  could  no  social  classes  consist¬ 
ently  exist  within  a  people,  but  national  lines  themselves 


EARLY  CHRISTIANITY 


275 


would  eventually  be  considered  artificial.  Similarly, 
woman  would  have  to  be  regarded  as  one  half  of  man¬ 
kind,  and  become  the  companion  and  equal  of  man. 
The  sympathetic  attitude  of  the  Master  toward  women, 
and  the  respect  that  he  felt  should  be  shown  them, 
appear  at  all  times  in  his  ministry.  Again,  to  those 
moved  by  the  spirit  of  Christ,  it  seemed  no  longer 
possible  that  children  should  be  exposed,  slain,  or 
brutally  treated,  but  that  they  should  be  considered 
as  the  especial  gift  of  God.  He  expressly  declared: 
“It  were  better  for  him  that  a  millstone  were  hanged 
about  his  neck,  and  he  cast  into  the  sea,  than  that  he 
should  offend  one  of  these  little  ones.”  Such  is  essen¬ 
tial  Christianity.  While  it  was  not  altogether  under¬ 
stood  by  the  primitive  Christians,  and  since  their  day 
has  often  been  overlaid  with  trappings  and  subject  to 
misconception,  through  it  the  road  to  universal  indi¬ 
vidualism  was  opened,  and  full  recognition  given  to 
personality  and  the  right  and  need  of  every  one  to 
work  out  his  own  salvation. 

Vicious  Conditions  That  Christianity  Needed  to  Re¬ 
form.  —  The  actual  social  conditions  amid  which  the  re¬ 
ligion  of  Christ  was  born,  and  which  it  was  destined  to 
reform,  were  most  degraded.  As  a  result  of  the  transit 
tion  through  which  it  was  passing,  the  Roman  world 
appears 1  to  have  been  sunk  in  vice  and  corruption,  espe- 

1  See  pp.  234-235. 


The  Roman 
virtues  were 
civic,  and 
failed  with 
the  rise  of 
the  Empire, 
when  Rome 
became 
corrupt  and 
immoral. 


276 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Other  phi¬ 
losophies 
and  religions 
were  in¬ 
effective  in 
checking  this 
corruption, 


dally  at  its  capital.  The  virtues  of  the  Romans  had  been 
civic  for  the  most  part,  and  consisted  in  patriotism, 
bravery,  and  service  to  the  state,  and  even  these  ideals 
largely  disappeared  with  the  development  of  the  Empire. 
There  was  not  much  incentive  to  patriotic  service,  where 
the  whole  power  of  government  was  vested  in  the  em¬ 
peror,  and  the  state  existed  only  as  a  means  of  collecting 
taxes ;  while  the  employment  of  mercenaries  prevented 
the  rise  of  valor  and  the  willingness  to  sacrifice  one's  self 
for  the  country.  The  superabundance  of  slaves  shut  the 
citizens  out  from  industrial  pursuits,  and  enabled  them 
to  be  supplied  in  their  idleness  with  food  and  amuse¬ 
ment.  The  people  naturally  fell  more  and  more  into 
vicious  tastes  and  habits,  especially  as  the  example 
set  them  by  the  upper  classes  was  most  depraved. 
Divorce  became  frequent  and  common  to  all  strata  of 
society ;  children  were  destroyed  by  exposure  and  infan¬ 
ticide  ;  public  ceremonials  of  the  most  immoral  sort, 
together  with  the  most  disgusting  wantonness  in  private, 
were  practiced  under  the  guise  of  religion  ;  while  at  reg¬ 
ular  intervals  occurred  the  bloodiest  of  gladiatorial  shows. 

To  check  this  widespread  depravity,  the  old  state  re¬ 
ligion  of  the  Romans,  with  its  system  of  legal,  institu¬ 
tional,  and  parental  duties,  could  no  longer  prove  effect¬ 
ive.  Nor  could  the  Greek  thought  itself,  even  the 
highest,  such  as  Aristotle’s  ‘well-being’  and  ‘well-doing,’ 
accomplish  much,  since  it  was  too  intellectual  and  philo- 


EARLY  CHRISTIANITY 


2  77 

sophic  to  make  the  necessary  emotional  appeal.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  Eastern  religions,  which  Rome  had 
admitted  in  her  easy-going  skepticism,  were  productive 
of  anything  but  good  results.  Most  of  them  appealed 
only  to  the  worst  instincts  and  passions;  and  while  the 
Persian  and  Egyptian  doctrines,  which  had  become  more 
rational  through  combination  with  Greek  philosophy, 
met  with  many  converts,  they  were  too  gloomy  and 
bizarre  for  general  acceptance.  Judaism,  however,  es¬ 
pecially  in  the  Hellenized  form  given  it  by  Philo,1  cap¬ 
tured  a  large  number  of  proselytes;  and,  although  it  was 
somewhat  impaired  as  a  religion  by  its  philosophic 
development,  must  have  accomplished  considerable  good. 
And  the  Romans  themselves  must  instinctively  have  felt 
the  need  of  some  regenerating  force,  as  is  shown  by  the 
developments  of  Stoicism  worked  out  by  Seneca,  Epic¬ 
tetus,  and  Marcus  Aurelius,  in  which  conscience  and 
duty  were  almost  deified.  While  these  concepts  also 
seemed  too  cold  and  dead,  and  could  reach  only  a  lim¬ 
ited  class  of  people,  about  the  time  of  Christ  they  had 
produced  a  marked  effect;  and,  together  with  Judaism, 
they  enabled  Christianity  to  enter  the  Roman  world 
upon  a  rising  tide  in  morals,  and  to  find  a  receptive 
environment. 

Nevertheless,  none  of  these  forces  could  have  accom¬ 
plished  a  successful  reform  in  Roman  society,  without 

1  See  footnote  on  p.  135. 


but  Chris¬ 
tianity  made 
a  more 


278 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


universal 

appeal. 


The  earliest 
education  for 
Christians 
consisted  in 
their  ‘  other¬ 
worldly  ’ 
manner  of 
living. 


the  stimulus  and  wider  appeal  of  the  Christian  teachings. 
Christianity  was  the  ethical  and  Universal  religion  needed 
as  a  leaven.  Its  truths  were  based  on  faith  rather  than 
understanding,  and  its  appeal  was  to  the  instinctive 
promptings  and  emotions  rather  than  to  the  intellect. 
It  appealed  to  sympathy  for  one’s  fellow-man  and  the 
love  of  an  ideal  character,  as  well  as  to  the  desire  to 
enter  the  kingdom,  and  the  emotion  of  fear  lest  one  miss 
this  everlasting  happiness.  This  made'  it  democratic, 
and  enabled  it  to  reach  the  masses  as  the  more  philo¬ 
sophic  system  of  ethics  and  the  various  national  re¬ 
ligions  could  not,  for  everybody  can  feel  and  have  faith, 
even  where  he  cannot  understand.  It  could  be  grasped 
and  applied  to  the  conduct  of  all,  and  it  found  a  large 
work  ready  for  it. 

The  Earliest  Christian  Education.  —  Thus  it  came 
about  that,  while  the  earliest  Christians  were  without 
schools  of  their  own  and  were  largely  illiterate,  their 
religion  itself  served  as  an  education.  They  were 
practically  deprived  of  intellectual  development,  but 
they  received  moral  training  of  a  very  high  order. 
The  very  dishonor  and  unpopularity  of  the  Christian 
religion,  and  the  segregation  of  their  church  member¬ 
ship,  gave  the  Christian  life  itself  all  the  effect  of  a 
species  of  school. 

The  early  Christians  showed  an  extreme  reaction  to 
the  vicious  morals  of  the  time,  and  endeavored  to 


EARLY  CHRISTIANITY 


279 


cultivate  in  their  life  the  higher  ideals  that  they 
believed  to  be  inculcated  by  the  teachings  of  Christ. 
They  had  gathered  from  the  statements  of  the  Master 
that  he  would  soon  return  and  the  world  would  come 
to  an  end,  and  they  concerned  themselves  almost 
entirely  with  a  preparation  for  ‘Jerusalem  the  golden’ 
and  the  ‘  life  everlasting.’  They  had  little  or  no 
regard  for  the  things  of  this  world.  Mundane  pleas¬ 
ures  and  satisfactions  were  to  be  sacrificed  for  the 
good  of  their  souls.  Hence  the  ideal  of  this  most 
primitive  education  through  the  Christian  life  may 
be  described  as  ‘otherworldly.’ 

The  Catechumenal  Schools.  —  When,  however,  the 
Church  began  to  extend  itself  rapidly,  it  seemed  neces¬ 
sary  to  insist  upon  some  sort  of  instruction  as  prelimi¬ 
nary  to  Church  membership.  It  was  also  deemed 
wise  to  fix  a  period  of  probation  after  the  profession 
of  one’s  faith  in  Christ,  in  order  that  informers  might 
not  be  admitted  to  the  services,  or  the  Church  dis¬ 
graced  by  apostasy  or  the  lapses  of  those  who  had 
not  well  considered  the  step.  These  demands  were 
met  by  the  gradual  institution  of  popular  instruction 
in  Christian  principles  for  the  Jewish  and  pagan 
proselytes,  who  were  known  as  catechumenoi  (‘those 
caused  to  hear’).  While  some  effort  was  made  to 
lift  the  pupils  of  these  catechumenal  schools  from  the 
bondage  of  ignorance,  the  catechumen  was  primarily 


1 


The  same 
ideal  was 
maintained 
in  the 
schools  for 
catechu¬ 
mens,  which 
were  soon 
instituted, 


280 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


l 


\ 

\ 


and  which 
became  the 
prototype  of 
parochial 
schools. 


trained  in  those  things  which  were  needed  for  his  soul’s 
salvation.  Thus  the  ideal  of  Christian  education  re¬ 
mained  prevailingly  ‘otherworldly.’ 

The  course  in  the  catechumenal  schools  was  for 
only  two  years  at  first,  according  to  Origen  ;  but,  as 
the  children  of  believers  also  came  to  be  trained  in 
this  way,  it  was  extended  to  four.  The  catechumens 
themselves  were  grouped  into  four  grades:  (i)  those 
who  had  just  expressed  their  desire  to  enter  the  Church; 

(2)  audientes  (‘  hearers  ’),  who  were  admitted  to  part 
of  the  worship,  but  had  to  withdraw  after  the  read¬ 
ing  of  stated  passages  and  the  sermon  or  exhortation; 

(3)  genuflectentes  (‘those  bending  the  knee’),  who 
joined  in  the  prayers  of  the  faithful;  and  (4)  electi, 
who  were  ready  for  baptism  and  full  communion 
upon  the  next  occasion  of  admission.  As  time  went 
on,  there  was  a  general  tendency  to  remain  in  the 
body  of  catechumens  indefinitely,  in  order  that  one 
might  not  be  guilty  of  sinning  after  entrance  upon 
Christian  life,  and  to  be  baptized,  and  so  purified 
from  transgression,  only  shortly  before  death.  Some 
of  the  most  famous  men  of  the  Church  were  them¬ 
selves  guilty  of  this  abuse,  but  it  was  finally  stopped. 

The  instruction  of  the  catechumens  was  carried  on  in 
the  portico  or  some  special  portion  of  each  church ;  and 
consisted  in  moral  and  religious  teachings,  the  reading, 
writing,  and  memorizing  of  the  Scriptures,  together  with 


EARLY  CHRISTIANITY 


281 


some  training  in  early  psalmody.  The  meetings  in  the 
church  were  held  several  times  a  week,  or  even  every 
day,  and  were  supplemented  by  the  strict  religious  and 
moral  training  of  the  home.  The  teachers  were  known 
as  catechists ,  and  were  generally  the  most  able  men  in 
the  Church.  This  catechumenal  instruction  became  the 
forerunner  of  the  pa7'ochial  (‘parish’)  schools  of  to-day. 

Amalgamation  of  Christianity  with  Graeco-Roman  The  Graeco- 
Culture.  —  But  while  the  Christian  ideals  and  training  were  schools  were, 
developing  and  crystallizing,  the  Greek  philosophy  in  its  hand^aris^ 
Roman  form  was  being  continued  and  expanded.  This  tocratl(=  and 

0  A  4  worldly. 

movement  has  been  seen  to  be  very  different  from  early 
Christianity  in  its  general  purpose.  It  concerned  itself 
chiefly  with  life  in  this  world.  The  problem  that  it 
attempted  to  solve  was  how  one  should  live  so  as  to  get 
the  most  satisfaction  out  of  life.  It  had  culminated  in 
philosophy  and  given  birth  to  truths  based  upon  reason. 

Because  only  a  few  could  understand  it,  or  possessed 
the  leisure  to  seek  ‘  well-being  ’  consciously,  the  Graeco- 
Roman  movement,  as  previously  noted,  was  as  essen¬ 
tially  aristocratic  as  the  Christian  was  democratic  ;  and, 
since  they  were  organized  so  as  to  prepare  for  the 
enjoyment  of  this  life,  the  Hellenized  Roman  schools 
may  be  accounted  as  ‘worldly’  as  the  Christian  were 
‘  otherworldly  ’  in  their  aim. 

A  general  feeling  of  the  marked  difference  in  purpose 
and  organization  between  Christianity  and  the  contempo- 


282 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


The  Greek 
Fathers  at 
first  favored 
Greek  phi¬ 
losophy, 


and  there  was 
a  tendency 
for  Chris¬ 
tianity  to 
unite  with  it. 


The  Apolo¬ 
gists. 


raneous  Graeco-Roman  culture  was  destined  to  cause  an 
opposition  to  the  pagan  learning  to  spring  up  among  the 
Christians,  and  to  produce  a  conflict  between  ideals  in 
the  Christian  schools  themselves.  For  some  time,  how¬ 
ever,  this  is  scarcely  noticeable,  especially  in  the  Eastern 
empire,  where  it  was  felt  that  philosophy  was,  like 
Christianity,  a  search  after  truth ;  and,  as  far  as  it  went, 
confirmed  the  Bible.  Justin  Martyr,  as  late  as  the 
middle  of  the  second  century,  declared  that  “  the  teach¬ 
ings  of  Plato  are  not  alien  to  those  of  Christ,  though  not 
in  all  respects  similar,  for  all  writers  (of  antiquity)  were 
able  to  have  a  dim  vision  of  realities  by  means  of  the 
in-dwelling  seed  of  the  implanted  word.” 

There  was  even  a  tendency  to  unite  the  two  movements. 
In  the  earliest  days  the  Christians  were  closely  bound 
together  by  a  common  enthusiasm,  and  had  not  found  it 
necessary  to  organize  the  Church,  or  formulate  an  ex¬ 
plicit  system  of  doctrine.  But  as  the  new  religion 
spread  throughout  the  Roman  world,  and  was  com¬ 
pelled  to  defend  itself  against  the  charges  of  immo¬ 
rality,  atheism,  and  treason,  the  educated  converts 
attempted  to  set  forth  the  Christian  teachings  in  terms 
of  Greek  thought,  and  to  solve  speculative  problems 
that  had  never  been  considered  by  Jesus  and  his 
disciples. 

Hence,  the  first  Hellenizing  Christians  like  Justin  were 
naturally  Apologists,  since  their  efforts  were  directed 


EARLY  CHRISTIANITY 


283 


toward  reconciling  Christianity  with  the  Graeco-Roman 
philosophy.  In  general,  these  philosophers  mingled 
Stoicism  with  the  teachings  of  Jesus.  They  utilized 
especially  the  Stoic  doctrine  of  the  Logos  (‘  word  ’), 
taking  it  more  directly  from  the  combination  with  Juda¬ 
ism  found  in  Philo.  With  Philo  this  Logos  is  repre¬ 
sented  as  the  reason  within  every  man,  which  is  also 
the  reason  of  God,  but  the  Christian  philosophers  em¬ 
phasized  more  clearly  than  Philo  the  personal  aspect 
of  the  Logos  and  the  position  of  John  that  “the  Word 
was  made  flesh  and  dwelt  among  us.”  Others  besides 
the  Apologists,  who  had  previously  been  Hellenistic 
philosophers,  and  naturally  continued  after  becoming 
Christians  to  think  in  those  terms,  carried  the  union  to 
such  an  extent  that  it  seemed  for  a  time  as  if  Christian¬ 
ity  might  become  a  mere  intellectual  system  instead  of 
a  religion.  The  teachings  of  Pythagoras,  Plato,  Aris¬ 
totle,  and  the  Stoics  were  all  more  or  less  amalgamated 
with  those  of  Christ.  Perhaps  the  most  extreme  of 
these  philosophic  positions  within  Christianity  was  that  Gnosticism, 
tendency  known  as  Gnosticism .  This  movement  was 
a  combination  of  the  Hellenized  forms  of  Oriental  re¬ 
ligion  with  Christianity.  It  was  intended  to  be  a  sort  of 
esoteric  ‘knowledge,’ 1  which  should  show  the  relation  of 
Christianity  to  other  religions  and  to  the  universe.  In 
most  cases  it  began  with  the  Platonic  doctrine  of  ideas, 

1 1.e.  gnosis . 


284 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


The 

Alexandrian 

Christians. 


and  so  made  a  metaphysical  distinction  between  the  ma¬ 
terial  world,  which  was  imperfect  and  evil,  and  the  spirit 
or  God,  who  was  perfect.  As  this  spiritual  God  could 
not  have  created  the  world  of  matter  from  which  he  was 
by  nature  so  removed,  the  Gnostics  had  to  reject  the  idea 
that  the  transcendent  Jehovah  was  the  Creator,  and,  ac¬ 
cordingly,  to  modify  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures.1 
Likewise,  they  selected  the  Gospel  of  Luke  and  the 
writings  of  Paul  from  among  the  contemporary  Chris¬ 
tian  documents. 

In  this  way,  during  the  second  and  third  centuries,  all 
the  Christians  at  Alexandria,  which  had  become  the 
great  center  of  the  various  syncretic  movements  known 
collectively  as  Hellenistic  philosophy,  were  influenced 
by  their  environment  and  tinctured  with  Greek  thought. 
Clement  (150-21 5)  held  that  the  Gospels  were  simply 
‘perfected  Platonism,’  and  that  philosophy  was  a  ‘peda¬ 
gogue  to  lead  the  world  to  Christ ;  ’  while  his  pupil, 
Origen  (185-253),  carried  his  admiration  for  philosophy 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  maintain  that  the  real  spiritual 
Christianity  could  be  apprehended  only  through  the 
forms  of  Greek  thought.  Ammonius  Saccus  (165-241) 
and  his  pupil,  Plotinus  (205-270),  went  even  farther  and 
reverted  to  Hellenism.  They  are  generally  considered 

1  Hence,  too,  their  formulation  of  a  whole  hierarchy  of  intervening 
powers,  which  had  emanated  from  God  in  a  series  until  one  was  suf¬ 
ficiently  akin  to  matter  to  create  the  world. 


EARLY  CHRISTIANITY  285 

the  founders  of  the  school  of  philosophy  known  as 
Neoplatonism. 

The  Catechetical,  Episcopal,  and  Cathedral  Schools.  — 

As  the  Christians  came  to  absorb  the  Greek  philosophy 
and  culture,  higher  training  became  a  necessity.  For 
more  than  a  century  and  a  half  they  were  unable  to 
obtain  any  real  literary  education,  except  by  attending 
pagan  schools,  but,  with  a  view  to  affording  higher 
instruction  for  Christian  teachers  and  leaders,  a  sort 
of  theological,  or  ‘catechetical’  school,  was  gradually 
organized  at  Alexandria  during  the  latter  half  of  the 
second  century.  It  had  no  building  of  its  own,  and  the 
students  met  at  the  teacher’s  house,  but  they  were  able 
to  take  advantage  of  the  facilities  of  the  University  of 
Alexandria.  In  addition  to  their  theological  training, 
the  pupils  were  allowed  to  study  all  types  of  Greek 
philosophy,  except  the  degrading  Epicureanism,  and 
also  the  classical  Greek  literature,  grammar,  rhetoric, 
dialectic,  arithmetic,  music,  geometry,  astronomy,  and 
other  higher  subjects  common  to  the  pagan  schools,  but 
from  a  different  point  of  view.  Thus  the  Graeco-Roman 
and  the  Christian  movements  had  formed  an  alliance  in 
education,  and  in  this  catechetical  school  we  find  a 
complete  union  and  harmonization  of  the  ‘otherworldly’ 
ideal  with  the  ‘worldly.’ 

The  founder  of  this  institution  was  probably  Athe- 
nagoras,  one  of  the  Apologists ;  but  it  first  became  of 


Catechetical 
schools 
were  or¬ 
ganized  at 
Alexandria 
and  else¬ 
where,  when 
Christianity 
began  to 
amalgamate 
with  Greek 
philosophy, 


286 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


and  later 
became 
known  as 
episcopal 
or  cathe¬ 
dral  schools. 


Christianity 
gradually 
grew  sus- 


importance  under  Pantsenus,  179,  who  had  been  con¬ 
verted  from  Stoicism,  and  was  a  man  of  wide  learn¬ 
ing.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  pupil,  Clement,  and  he 
in  turn  by  Origen.  These  last  two  were  among  the 
most  noted  of  the  Eastern  Fathers  in  the  philosophic 
interpretation  of  Christianity,  and  their  school  at  Alex¬ 
andria  contributed  no  little  to  heretical  doctrine  as  well 
as  to  Christian  theology.  Origen  was  finally  expelled 
for  heresy,  and  opened  a  new  school  of  the  same  sort 
at  Caesarea,  where  he  was  kindly  received.  Other 
catechetical  schools  then  sprang  up  rapidly  at  Antioch, 
Edessa,  Nisibis,  and  elsewhere  throughout  the  East, 
where  the  Christians  were  more  sympathetically  dis¬ 
posed  toward  the  Greek  philosophy. 

Before  long  the  catechetical  schools  came  to  be  used 
regularly  by  the  bishops  in  training  their  clergy,  and 
promotion  in  the  Church  began  to  depend  upon  having 
had  this  education.  So  these  schools  came  to  be  an 
institution  in  every  bishopric  at  the  see  city ;  and 
thus  became  known  eventually  as  episcopal  (‘  bishop’s  ’) 
schools ,  or,  in  the  West  especially,  from  their  location 
at  the  bishop’s  church,  as  cathedral  schools.  These 
names,  however,  are  not  generally  attached  to  the  cate¬ 
chetical  schools  until  the  general  foundation  of  monastic 
schools  in  the  sixth  century. 

Opposition  of  Christianity  to  the  Graeco-Roman  Cul¬ 
ture. —  However,  by  the  century  after  the  foundation 


EARLY  CHRISTIANITY 


287 


of  the  catechetical  school  at  Alexandria,  the  Christians  picious  of 

Greek 

had  begun  to  grow  suspicious  of  Graeco- Roman  culture  culture, 
and  the  ‘  worldly  ’  ideal  in  education.  Even  the  Eastern 
Fathers  appear  to  have  cooled  considerably  in  their 
attitude  toward  philosophy.  Basil  of  Caesarea  wrote: 

“Are  we  then  to  give  up  literature  ?  I  do  not  say  that, 
but  I  do  say  that  we  must  not  kill  souls.  ...  If  you 
can  unite  both  advantages,  do  so  by  all  means ;  but  if 
not,  choose  the  more  precious.”  And  Chrysostom  of 
Antioch,  in  the  fourth  century,  says  of  the  Greek  learn¬ 
ing  :  “  I  have  long  ago  laid  aside  such  follies,  for  one 
* 

cannot  spend  all  one’s  life  in  child’s  play.” 

The  Western  or  Latin  Fathers  seem  to  have  been  especially 

among  the 

bitterly  opposed  to  pagan  culture  even  earlier.  Roman  western 

Fathers  * 

Christians  could  not  forget  the  immorality  of  those  who 
had  been  connected  with  this  culture,  nor  the  abuse 
and  insults  that  these  pagans  had  heaped  upon  the 
Christians.  They  felt,  too,  that  the  one  great  mission 
of  the  Church  was  ethical,  and  that  philosophy  was 
somewhat  impertinent.  Moreover,  the  belief  that  the 
second  coming  of  Christ  was  close  at  hand,  and  the 
consequent  reaction  against  all  the  pleasures  of  the 
world,  greatly  strengthened  their  disposition  to  regard 
learning  as  of  trivial  importance. 

“The  simpler-minded,”  said  Tertullian,  somewhere 
toward  the  end  of  the  second  century,  “not  to  say 
ignorant  and  unlearned  men,  who  always  form  the 


288 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


i 


and  all  pagan 

literature  was 

forbidden, 

and  the 

pagan 

schools 

closed. 


But,  as  a 
result  of 
Greek  in- 


majority  of  believers,  are  frightened  at  the  Economy 
(i.e.  the  philosophic  explanation  of  the  Trinity).  ”  And 
he  elsewhere  shows  himself  so  much  in  sympathy  with 
this  view  as  to  ask :  “  What  resemblance  is  there  be¬ 
tween  a  philosopher  and  a  Christian,  —  between  a  dis¬ 
ciple  of  Greece  and  a  disciple  of  heaven  ?  ”  A  century 
later,  Jerome,  the  most  scholarly  of  the  Christian 
Fathers  and  the  author  of  works  on  a  variety  of  topics, 
narrates  a  dream  in  which  his  claim  to  being  a  Chris¬ 
tian  was  rebuked  by  the  Almighty  on  the  ground  that 

no  one  could  be  of  the  faithful  and  at  the  same  time 

» 

‘a  Ciceronian.’  Similarly,  Augustine  (354-430),  who 
until  nearly  the  middle  of  his  life  was  a  teacher  and 
had  written  a  great  treatise  on  dialectic,  later,  as  an 
ecclesiastical  administrator,  condemned  the  very  works 
that  had  broadened  his  mind,  and  spent  much  of  his 
energy  fighting  philosophic  heresies.  The  principle  of 
‘  authority  ’  contained  in  his  City  of  God  and  his  Con¬ 
fessions ,  together  with  his  personal  influence,  was 
largely  instrumental  in  bringing  about  the  Council  of 
Carthage  (401),  at  which  the  clergy  were  forbidden 
to  read  all  pagan  literature ;  and  so  helped  to  make 
possible  the  edict  of  Justinian  (529),  by  which  all 
pagan  schools  were  closed  and  the  Middle  Ages  ush¬ 
ered  in. 

Influence  of  Greece  and  Rome  upon  Christianity.  — 
Nevertheless,  in  spite  of  the  growth  of  opposition  to 


EARLY  CHRISTIANITY 


289 


pagan  culture  and  its  eventual  suppression,  primitive 
Christianity  could  not  endure  in  its  simplicity  after  it 
had  been  in  contact  with  the  advanced  intellectual  con¬ 
cepts  of  the  Greeks  as  modified  by  the  organizing 
genius  of  the  Romans.  Both  Greece  and  Rome  had 
left  a  permanent  impress  upon  Christianity ;  and, 
though  dead,  they  yet  live  in  the  Christian  Church. 
While  the  Graeco- Roman  culture  had  been  rejected,  its 
influence  is  seen  in  the  formulation  of  a  system  of  Chris¬ 
tian  doctrine  and  the  institutionalizing  of  the  Church. 
Christianity  no  longer  rested  solely  upon  upright  con¬ 
duct  and  religious  fervor.  An  authoritative  creed  and 
a  canon  of  approved  writings  had  begun  to  appear. 

During  the  second  century,  the  nucleus  of  the  Apos¬ 
tles'  Creed  developed.  It  was  not  at  first  supposed 
that  the  apostles  had  a  common  confession,  but  in  time 
the  belief  naturally  arose  that  this  creed  had  come  down 
from  them  through  unbroken  tradition.  By  the  earliest 
part  of  the  third  century  the  Church  had  also  selected 
a  canon  of  sacred  writings,  which  overlapped  that  of 
the  Gnostics  somewhat,  but  omitted  some  works  and 
added  others.  This  New  Testament  was  now  recog¬ 
nized  as  on  a  par  with  the  Jewish  Scriptures,  which 
the  orthodox  Christians  had  never  rejected,  and,  taken 
together,  they  were  considered  to  make  up  the  Bible , 
or  ‘  book  ’  of  authority.  While  creed  and  canon  were 
not  completely  shaped  for  several  centuries,  both  were 


fluence, 
Christianity 
adopted  for¬ 
mal  creeds, 
and  selected 
a  canon 
of  sacred 
writings. 


U 


290 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


In  other 
ways,  too,  the 
theology  and 
customs  of 
Christianity 
were  in¬ 
fluenced 
by  Greek 
thought  and 
practice. 


early  regarded  as  final  on  the  ground  of  being  the  prod¬ 
uct  of  revelation.  Henceforth,  the  assent  to  a  body 
of  doctrine,  rather  than  one’s  conduct,  became  the 
test  of  Christian  membership.  In  this  way,  a  century 
before  Augustine,  the  idea  of  ‘authority’  appeared; 
and  the  Gnostics  and  other  Hellenists  were  viewed 
as  heretical.  But  the  formulation  of  Christian  doctrine 
could  not  stop  with  the  Apostles’  Creed  and  the  Bible. 
There  was  much  speculation  with  regard  to  the  person 
of  Jesus.  The  party  of  Arius  held  that  Jesus  was  not 

‘  consubstantial  ’  with  the  Father,  as  was  maintained  in 

* 

the  doctrine  of  Athanasius  and  his  followers.  To  settle 
this  controversy,  a  Church  council  was  called  together 
at  Nicaea  in  325 ;  and,  as  the  result  of  the  defeat 
of  the  Arians,  a  new  creed  was  formed,  known  as  the 
Nicene  Creed ,  which  was  perfected  during  the  follow¬ 
ing  centuries.  In  the  Western  Church  the  Apostles’ 
Creed  was  preferred,  while  in  the  East  that  of  Nicaea 
prevailed. 

The  Greek  influence  upon  Christianity,  however,  has 
not  been  limited  to  the  production  of  the  Gnostic  and 
other  heresies,  or  to  the  Gospel  of  John,  the  Nicene 
Creed,  and  similar  orthodox  works.  It  appears  through¬ 
out  the  theology  and  customs  of  the  Church.  Many 
other  doctrines,  especially  of  the  Platonists  and  Stoics ; 
the  Greek  tendency  to  attribute  universal  validity  to 
their  inspired  writings,  and  to  interpret  them  allegori- 


EARLY  CHRISTIANITY 


291 


cally ;  and  the  pomp,  ceremonies,  and  mysteries  of  the 
old  Hellenic  worship,  are  all  more  or  less  apparent  in 
various  ecclesiastical  tenets  and  usages.  Likewise,  the 
early  Christian  practice  of  spontaneous  utterance,  with 
the  belief  that  the  mouth  would  be  filled  by  the  Holy 
Ghost,  gave  way  during  the  fourth  century  to  the  Greek 
custom  of  careful  preparation.  The  artificial  structure, 
elaborate  phraseology,  and  bid  for  applause  in  the 
preaching  of  Basil  and  Chrysostom  remind  us  some¬ 
what  of  the  later  rhetoricians  of  Hellenized  Rome.1 

But  Christianity  was  not  modified  by  Hellenic  influ-  christian- 

.  .  ity  was  in- 

ence  alone.  The  Roman  concepts  of  law  and  admims-  fluenced  also 
tration  specifically  played  an  important  part  in  reshaping  organMon. 
Christianity.  The  institution  of  definite  tests,  like  the 
creeds  and  the  canon  of  Scriptures,  had  been  possible 
only  through  the  Church’s  becoming  more  and  more 
organized  on  the  plan  of  the  Roman  civil  polity.  At 
first  there  seem  to  have  been  no  appointed  officials  in 
the  Church ;  the  apostles  wandered  from  place  to  place, 
the  prophets  announced,  and  the  teachers  taught  by  no 
authority  save  the  moving  of  the  divine  spirit.  Gradu¬ 
ally  the  various  congregations  came  to  see  the  need 
of  having  officers  to  administer  the  funds  of  the 
churches,  and  apparently  followed  the  pattern  of  the 
episcopi  (‘overseers’)  of  the  pagan  benevolent  socie¬ 
ties  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  the  presbyten  (‘elders  ) 


1  See  pp.  218  and  268. 


292 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


of  the  Jewish  synagogue  upon  the  other.  As  the 
enthusiasm  and  prophesying  of  the  early  days  died 
out,  and  it  became  necessary  to  have  regular  teachers, 
it  was  only  natural  that  the  churches  should  turn  to 
the  overseers  and  elders  to  perform  this  function  in 
addition  to  their  stewardship.  The  names  ‘overseer’ 
and  ‘  elder  ’  seem  to  have  been  used  at  first  inter¬ 
changeably,  but  before  long  the  president  of  the  board 
of  elders  alone  was  known  as  overseer  or  bishop,  and 
became  a  sort  of  superior  teacher.  Before  the  end  of 
the  second  century,  bishops  were  believed  to  have  suc¬ 
ceeded  the  apostles  in  a  direct  line,  and  to  have  a  super¬ 
natural  apprehension  of  the  truth.  Then  the  bishops 
were  thought  of  together  as  the  heads  of  the  Church, 
and  met  as  a  body  from  the  neighboring  cities  of  a 
given  province  to  approve  and  defend  doctrines.  By 
the  third  century  had  begun  that  powerful  organiza¬ 
tion  of  bishops,  clergy,  and  laity  known  as  the  Catholic 
(‘  universal  ’)  Church ;  and  any  one  selecting  a  belief  out¬ 
side  of  that  authorized  by  the  Church,  such  as  Arianism, 
was  considered  a  heretic  and  debarred  from  salvation. 

This  federation  of  the  Church  seems  to  have  closely 
paralleled  the  Roman  civil  organization,  the  presbyters 
and  bishops  ordinarily  corresponding  to  district  and  city 
magistrates  respectively.  Only  a  visible  head  of  the 
entire  Church,  with  a  position  similar  to  that  of  the 
emperor,  was  needed  to  make  the  comparison  complete, 


EARLY  CHRISTIANITY 


293 


and  this  was  eventually  accomplished  in  445  through 
the  recognition  by  Valentinian  III  of  the  supremacy 
of  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  who  by  the  sixth  century  came 
to  be  generally  known  as  the  Pope  (‘father’).  From 
this  time  on  the  terms  ‘  Catholic  ’  and  ‘  Roman  ’  became 
practically  synonymous. 


Effect  of  Organized  Christianity  upon  Society.  —  Thus  Greek  and 

Roman 

to-day  the  genius  of  both  Greece  and  Rome  is  given  a  thought 


new  lease  of  life  through  its  incorporation  in  the  doc-  ^V^und" 


trine  and  government  of  the  Christian  Church.  If  one  in 


would  find  the  continuation  of  Greek  philosophy,  he  Christianity, 
must  look  not  to  the  schools  of  Alexandria,  where  it 
ran  into  a  blind  alley,  but  to  the  theology  of  Christian¬ 
ity  ;  and  if  he  would  trace  the  organizing  power  of  the 
Romans,  he  will  find  the  best  present  illustration  not  in 
a  mighty  empire,  which  died  before  the  sixth  century, 
and  which  neither  Charlemagne  nor  Napoleon  could 
revive,  but  in  the  living  Church  of  Catholic  Christianity. 

Conversely,  it  must  be  admitted  that  for  centuries 
Christianity  has  not  been  the  pure  unadulterated  religion 
of  Christ,  and  that  many  of  the  doctrines  and  forms 
of  Church  government  are  outgrowths  of  more  ancient 
thought.  Nevertheless,  while  this  substitution  of  dogma 


for  a  free  spirit  of  devotion,  love,  and  service  constituted 
a  lowering  of  standards  and  a  loss  to  true  religion,  it 
seems  to  have  been  absolutely  necessary,  if  Christianity 
were  to  accomplish  its  mission.  After  the  traditions  of 


294 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


The  aliena¬ 
tion  of 
Christianity 
from  the 
Graeco- 
Roman 
culture 
resulted 
in  the  promi¬ 
nence  of 
monastic 
schools  and 
a  reversion 
to  the  ‘  other¬ 
worldly  ’ 
ideal. 


the  personality  of  Jesus  had  somewhat  faded,  and  the 
enthusiasm  had  been  diluted  by  the  accession  of  great 
hordes  of  converts,  especially  among  the  German  bar¬ 
barians,  some  system  of  organization  and  doctrine  was 
necessary  to  bind  the  heterogeneous  mass  together. 
Christianity  was  preserved  at  a  lower  level,  but  it  was 
preserved. 

The  Monastic  Schools.  —  Thus  it  has  been  seen  how 
the  two  great  movements  of  Graeco-Roman  culture  and 
Christianity  arose  independently,  in  time  united,  and 
later  separated,  although  after  separation  each  is  dis¬ 
covered  to  have  been  influenced  by  the  other.  That  is 
to  say,  as  we  view  the  education  of  premediaeval  Chris¬ 
tianity,  we  find  first  that  the  catechumenal  schools 
illustrate  the  nature  of  primitive  Christianity,  with  its 
‘otherworldly’  ideal.  Then  the  union  of  Hellenism 
and  Christianity,  —  the  ‘worldly’  with  the  ‘otherworldly,’ 
appears  in  the  catechetical  schools.  Finally,  through 
the  alienation  of  the  Christians  from  the  Greek  learning, 
which  culminated  in  529  with  the  decree  of  Justinian 
and  the  downfall  of  the  pagan  schools,  the  Christian 
education  seems  to  have  been  left  alone  in  the  field, 
but  to  have  been  somewhat  affected  by  its  long  associ¬ 
ation  with  Graeco-Roman  culture. 

It  then  found  its  chief  means  of  expression  in  the 
monastic  schools ;  and  there  was  naturally  in  these  in¬ 
stitutions  a  tendency  to  revert  to  an  ascetic  or  ‘other- 


EARLY  CHRISTIANITY 


295 


worldly  *  ideal,  and  leave  intellectual  attainments  largely 
out  of  consideration.  The  curriculum  became  fixed  and 
♦  somewhat  barren.  It  consisted  mostly  in  learning  to 
read  and  write  the  Scriptures,  sing  psalms,  work  out 
enough  mathematics  and  astronomy  to  calculate  holy 
days,  together  with  a  mere  taste  of  the  old  Graeco-Roman 
culture  through  the  medium  of  the  Seven  Liberal  Arts. 

These  monastic  institutions  remained  the  most  impor¬ 
tant  influence  in  education  until  the  Revival  of  Learning 
and  a  wider  educational  content  appeared.  But  the 
discussion  of  monasticism  and  the  monastic  schools  be¬ 
longs  rather  to  the  Middle  Ages  than  the  period  of  Early 
Christianity. 

Summary  of  Premediaeval  Progress.  —  It  may  be  well 
at  this  point  to  summarize  in  briefest  terms  what  prog¬ 
ress  was  effected  in  education  before  the  dawn  of  modern 
times.  In  general,  it  may  be  stated  that  during  the  day 
of  primitive  man  no  distinction  at  all  was  made  between 
society  and  the  individual,  and  practically  all  advance¬ 
ment  was  impossible,  for  no  one  looked  beyond  the 
present.  With  the  appearance  of  the  transitional  period 
in  the  Oriental  countries,  the  individual  had  begun  to 
emerge,  but  was  kept  in  constant  subjection  to  the  social 
whole,  for  man  was  quite  enslaved  to  the  past.  As  the 
Jewish,  Athenian,  and  Roman  civilizations  developed,  the 
beginnings  of  individualism  were  for  the  fiist  time 
revealed,  and  some  regard  was  had  for  the  future. 


296 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Finally,  in  the  teaching  of  Christ,  there  came  a  larger 
recognition  of  the  principle  of  individualism  and  the 
brotherhood  of  man.  Owing  to  the  necessity  for 
spreading  these  enlarged  ideals  among  a  barbarous 
horde  of  peoples,  individualism  for  a  time  was  forced 
back,  and  throughout  the  Middle  Ages  the  leaven  lay 
hidden  in  the  lump.  But  in  a  variety  of  ways  its 
influence  increased  during  this  seemingly  dormant 
period,  until,  in  the  fourteenth,  fifteenth,  and  sixteenth 
centuries,  we  catch  the  unmistakable  signs  of  an  awak¬ 
ening.  Such  a  Renaissci?ice  (‘ new  birth  ’)  was  inevitable, 
for  development  cannot  be  permanently  arrested,  and 
only  through  a  universal  possibility  of  expression  can 
progress  be  insured.  In  the  spiritual,  as  in  the  biologi¬ 
cal  world,  variation  is  essential. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 
I.  Sources 

Christian  Fathers :  Athanasius,  Athenagoras,  Basil,  Chrysostom, 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  Clement  of  Rome,  Cyprian,  Eusebius, 
Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  Gregory  Thaumaturgus,  Hegesippus,  Hippo- 
lytus,  Ignatius,  Irenaeus,  Jerome,  Justin  Martyr,  Lactantius,  Marcion, 
Minucius  Felix,  Origen,  Polycarp,  Tatian,  Tertullian,  and  Theophilus. 
Hellenized Jew :  Philo. 

Neojlatonist :  Plotinus. 

Stoics :  Marcus  Aurelius,  Epictetus,  and  Seneca. 

The  Apostles'  Creed ;  The  New  Testament ;  The  Nicene  Creed ; 
The  Teaching  of  the  Apostles ;  Epistle  of  Barnabas. 


EARLY  CHRISTIANITY 


297 


II.  Authorities 

Addis,  W.  E.  Christianity  and  the  Roman  Empire. 

Allen,  A.  V.  G.  The  Continuity  of  Christian  Thought. 

Caird,  E.  Theology  in  the  Greek  Philosophers. 

Dill,  S.  Roman  Society  in  the  Last  Century  of  the  Western 
Empire.  Bk.  V  especially. 

Dollinger,  J.  J.  I.  Jew  and  Gentile. 

Farrar,  F.  W.  Early  Days  of  Christianity. 

Harrison,  Jane  E.  Prolegomena  to  the  Study  of  Greek  Religion. 

Hatch,  E.  The  Influence  of  Greek  Ideas  and  Usages  upon  the 
Christian  Church. 

Hausrath,  A.  History  of  New  Testament  Times  in  the  Apostolic 
Period. 

Hodgson,  Geraldine.  Primitive  Christian  Education. 

Kuenan,  A.  Judaism  and  Christianity. 

Milman,  C.  History  of  Latin  Christianity.  Bk.  III. 

Neander,  A.  General  History  of  the  Christian  Religion  and 
Church. 

Orr,  James.  Neglected  Factors  in  the  Study  of  the  Early  Progress 
of  Christianity. 

Schurer,  E.  History  of  the  Jewish  People  in  the  Time  of  Jesus 
Christ. 

Taylor,  H.  O.  Ancient  Ideals. 

Taylor,  H.  O.  Classical  Heritage  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

Toy,  C.  H.  Judaism  and  Christianity. 

Wenley,  R.  M.  The  Preparation  for  Christianity. 


INDEX 


Academy,  the,  165  (footnote),  215. 

Achaia,  146. 

Acropolis,  144. 

jEschylus,  144,  172,  178. 

Ahriman,  94. 

Aim  of  education.  See  Purpose. 

Alcibiades,  144. 

Alexander,  145. 

Alexandria,  university  of,  219  f. ; 
museum  and  library,  220,  263; 

Christians  at,  284  f. ;  catechetical 
school  at,  285  f. 

Ammonius  Saccus,  284  f. 

Amon,  25,  36. 

Ancestor  worship,  11. 

Andronicus,  Livius,  247. 

An  gas,  85. 

Animism,  9,  117. 

Anthropomorphism,  in  Judaea,  119. 

Apologists,  282  f.,  285. 

Apostles'  Creed ,  289. 

Architecture,  of  Egypt,  29  f.;  Baby- 
lonio- Assyria,  47  f.;  Greeks,  143  f., 
222. 

Aristides,  144. 

Aristophanes,  144,  172,  179. 

Aristotle,  educational  theory,  198  ff., 
276  f. ;  influence  of,  21 1  ff. 

Arius,  290. 

Art,  of  Egypt,  31  f. ;  Babylonio- 
Assyria,  47  f.;  China,  62;  Greeks, 
143  f- 

Aryans,  77  f. 

Assyria,  43  ff.;  social  conditions,  etc. 
See  Babylonia. 

Aten,  25. 

Athanasius,  290. 

Athenagoras,  285. 

Athens,  history  of,  142  ff.;  education 
of,  157  ff. 

Augustine,  288. 

Augustus,  Age  of,  233  f. 


Ba’al,  1 18,  120. 

Babylonia,  43  f.;  social  conditions, 
44  f. ;  religion  and  ethics,  45  f. ; 
science,  46  f. ;  architecture  and 
art,  47  f. ;  literature,  48  f.;  edu¬ 
cation,  49  f. 

Barbarism,  20  f. 

Basil,  287,  291. 

Beth  ham-Midrash,  126. 

Bhandarkar,  Professor,  quoted,  85. 

Bible,  289  f. 

Bishop  of  Rome,  293. 

Bishops,  291  f. 

Blandus,  260. 

Blood  tie,  9. 

Book  of  the  Dead,  26. 

Brahmanism,  78  ff. 

Brotherhood  of  man,  273,  274. 

Buddhism,  60,  79  f. 

Carvilius,  Spurius,  252. 

Castes,  in  India,  80  f. 

Catechetical  schools,  285  f. 

Catechists,  281. 

Catechumenal  schools,  279  ff. 

Cathedral  schools,  286. 

Catholic  Church,  292,  293. 

Cato,  244,  245. 

Children,  in  China,  65;  India,  80; 
Persia,  96;  Judaea,  135;  Sparta, 
149  ff. ;  Athens,  157  ff.;  The  Re¬ 
public,  186;  The  Politics,  205  ff. ; 
Christianity,  275. 

China,  5 5  f . ;  religion  and  ethics,  58 
ff.;  culture,  61  f.;  education,  62  ff.; 
effect  upon  civilization,  73  ff. 

Christianity,  larger  ideals  of,  274  f.; 
its  universal  appeal,  278;  amalga¬ 
mation  with  Graeco-Roman  cul¬ 
ture,  281  ff.;  opposition  to  pagan 
learning,  286  ff. ;  influence  of 
Greece  upon,  288  ff. ;  influence  of 


299 


3oo 


INDEX 


Rome  upon,  291  ff. ;  effect  upon 
society,  293  f. 

Christian  schools,  278,  279  f.,  285  f., 
294  f. 

Chrysippus,  216,  250  (footnote). 
Chrysostom,  287,  291. 

Cicero,  233,  246,  253,  256,  258,  261, 
262. 

Cimon,  144. 

Citharistes,  161,  163,  165  (footnote). 
Classes  of  society,  in  Egypt,  27  f. ; 
Babylonio-Assyria,  44  f. ;  India, 
80  f . ;  Persia,  96. 

Clement,  284,  286. 

Cleon,  144. 

Confessions  before  Osiris,  26. 
Confucius,  56  ff. 

Conscious  evolution,  education  as,  1  f. 
Constitution  of  Athens,  203  (footnote). 
Content  of  education,  6;  in  primitive 
society,  14  f. ;  Egypt,  35  ff. ;  Baby¬ 
lonio-Assyria,  49  f. ;  Phoenicia,  54; 
China,  69  ff. ;  India,  83  ff. ;  Persia, 
98  ff. ;  transitional  people,  106; 
Judaea,  123  ff. ;  prehistoric  Greece, 
146  f. ;  Sparta,  150  ff. ;  Athens, 
157,  1 59  ff- ;  The  Republic,  186  ff. ; 
The  Politics,  205  ff. ;  Rome  in 
early  days,  237  ff. ;  ludi,  246  f. ; 
grammar  schools,  252  ff.;  rhetorical 
schools,  259  ff. ;  university,  264; 
Christian  schools,  278  f.,  279  ff., 
285  f.,  295. 

Corporal  punishment,  in  Egypt,  38  f . ; 
China,  73;  India,  88;  among 
Jews,  132  f.;  Spartans,  151,  153; 
Athenians,  165,  166;  Romans, 

249  f-»  259. 

Corruption,  at  Rome,  234  f.,  245. 
Council,  at  Carthage,  288;  Nicaea,  290. 
Crates  of  Mallos,  243,  253. 

Curiales,  235. 

Cyropoedia,  99  (footnote),  179. 

Dancing,  152,  155,  163,  258. 
Decemvirs,  231,  243. 

Degrees,  in  China,  66  ff. 

Delos,  Confederacy  of,  143. 

Dialectic,  181,  189. 


Didascaleum,  161,  186. 

Dionysius,  of  Thrace,  256  f. 

Discipline,  of  schools.  See  Corporal 
punishment. 

Double,  conception  of  the,  9  f. 

Education,  purpose  of,  5;  matter,  6; 
method,  6;  organization,  6;  re¬ 
sults,  7. 

Egypt,  22;  engineering,  23  f. ;  reli¬ 
gion  and  ethics,  25  ff. ;  classes  of 
society,  27  f. ;  position  of  women, 
28;  architecture,  29  f. ;  art,  31  f. ; 
sciences,  33;  literature,  34;  edu¬ 
cation,  34  ff. 

Eiren,  154. 

Elementary  schools,  in  China,  64  f. ; 
India,  84;  Judaea,  126  f. ;  Sparta, 
150  ff. ;  Athens,  158  ff. ;  The  Re¬ 
public,  185  f. ;  The  Politics,  205  ff. ; 
Rome,  246  ff. 

Engineering,  in  Egypt,  23  f.,  33. 

Entelechy,  202  (footnote). 

Ephebus,  167  f.,  175. 

Epicureans,  the,  216. 

Episcopal  schools,  286. 

Episcopi,  291  f. 

Erechtheum,  144. 

Ethics,  in  Egypt,  26  f.,  Babylonio- 
Assyria,  45  f. ;  Phoenicia,  53  f.; 
China,  58  f.;  India,  78  f.;  Persia, 
93  f- 

Ethics ,  The,  198  ff. 

Euripides,  144,  172. 

Examinations,  in  China,  65  ff. 

Exposure  of  children,  149  f.,  158, 
191,  205,  an,  275. 

Family,  as  means  of  education,  among 
savages,  14  f. ;  Jews,  123;  Greeks, 
i47>  i5°>  i58»  186,  205  f.;  early 
Romans,  237  ff. ;  Christians,  278. 

Five  Classics,  57. 

Formal  discipline,  189,  196,  213. 

Four  Books,  57  f. 

Future,  consideration  for,  109,  272  f. 

Future  life,  belief  in,  among  Egyp¬ 
tians,  26;  Babylonio-Assyrians,  46; 
Persians,  96. 


INDEX 


301 


Gemara,  116. 

Gilgatnesh,  Epic  of,  46,  48. 

Gnosticism,  283  f.,  289,  290. 

Graeco-Roman  culture,  absorption  of, 
281  ff. 

Grammar  schools,  in  Rome,  252  ff. 

Grammaticus,  252. 

Greece,  history  of,  139  ff. ;  education 
in,  146  ff.;  influence  of,  upon 
Christianity,  288  ff.  See  also  Athens 
and  Sparta. 

Greek  culture,  absorption  of,  221  f., 
281  ff.,  288  ff. 

Greek  Fathers,  281  ff. 

Gymnasia,  165,  175. 

Gymnastae,  165. 

Hammurabi,  43,  49. 

Han-lin,  66. 

Hapi,  25. 

Hebrews.  See  Jews. 

Hellenistic  philosophy,  221,  284  f. 

Helotes,  141,  150. 

Henotheism,  in  Egypt,  26;  Babylonio- 
Assyria,  45  E;  Israel,  118,  122; 
Greece,  224. 

Herodotus,  144- 

Hesiod,  164,  256. 

Hieroglyphs,  Egyptian,  37  f. 

Higher  education,  in  China,  65  ff. ; 
India,  84 ff.;  Judaea,  125  f.;  Sparta, 
153  f.;  Athens,  165  ff.,  175  E; 
The  Republic,  189;  The  Politics, 
208  f.;  Rome,  259  ff.;  early  Chris¬ 
tianity,  285  f. 

Hinduism,  80. 

History  of  education,  value  of,  2 ; 
how  to  study  it,  2  ff. 

Home,  as  means  of  education.  See 
Family. 

Homer,  140,  147,  152,  164,  253,  256. 

Horace,  233,  256. 

Horus,  25. 

Ideal  of  education.  See  Purpose. 

Ideals,  how  developed,  3  ff. ;  how 
realized,  5  f. ;  beginnings  of  con¬ 
sideration  for,  272  f. 

Ideographs,  37  f.,  50,  61. 


Imitation,  as  method  of  education, 
primitive  peoples,  16;  Egypt,  38; 
Babylonio-Assyria,  50;  China,  72; 
India,  87;  Persia,  100;  transitional 
peoples,  107;  Jews,  131;  prehis¬ 
toric  Greece,  148;  Athens,  164; 
Rome,  241  f.,  248  f. 

India,  77  f.;  religion,  78  ff.;  castes, 
80  ff. ;  education,  83  ff . ;  effect 
upon  character,  88  f. 

Individualism,  in  primitive  society, 
15,  18;  Egypt,  40;  Babylonio-As¬ 
syria,  51;  Phoenicia,  54;  China,  75; 
India,  88  f. ;  Persia,  101;  the  tran¬ 
sitional  peoples,  105;  prehistoric 
Greece,  148;  Sparta,  155;  Athens, 
157,  J59;  of  the  sophists,  176  f.; 
Plato,  1 91  ff.;  Aristotle,  209 f.,  2x4 f.; 
the  Greeks,  226  ff.;  the  beginnings 
of,  272  f.;  in  Christianity,  274  E 

Industrial  class,  in  Egypt,  28;  in. 
Babylonio-Assyria,  44  f. 

Initiatory  ceremonies,  15. 

Irony,  of  Socrates,  181  f. 

Isis,  25. 

Isocrates,  2x8. 

Israel.  See  Jews. 

Jahweh.  See  Jehovah. 

Jehovah,  111,  113,  133- 

Jerome,  288. 

Jews,  history  of,  no  ff. ;  religion, 
11 7  ff. ;  education,  122  ff.;  effect 
on  civilization,  133  ff. 

Johnson,  Samuel,  quoted,  8. 

Josue  ben  Gamala,  104. 

Judaea.  See  Jews. 

Justin,  282. 

Justinian,  edict  of,  288,  294. 

Ka,  the,  26. 

Karnak,  29. 

Katharsis,  208. 

Lares,  240. 

Latin  Fathers,  287  f. 

Laws,  The,  194. 

Liberal  studies,  196. 

Literature,  of  Egypt,  34;  Babyloniq- 


302 


INDEX 


Assyria,  48  f. ;  China,  61 ;  India, 
85;  Persia,  97  f.;  Jews,  115  f.; 
Greeks,  143  f.;  Romans,  233  f. 

Litterator,  247,  252. 

Litteratus,  252. 

Locke,  196. 

Logos,  283. 

Lucilius,  256. 

Lucretius,  233,  256. 

Ludus,  245,  246  f. 

Luxor,  29. 

Lyceum,  165  (footnote),  215. 

Lycurgus,  142,  152. 

Maccabees,  the,  116. 

Macedonian  conquest,  145. 

Maieutic,  182. 

Manu,  Code  of,  85. 

Martin,  Dr.,  quoted,  65. 

Matter  of  education.  See  Content. 

Mazdeism,  93  f. 

Means  of  education.  See  Organiza¬ 
tion. 

Melleiren,  153. 

Memoriter  method,  38,  50,  71,  87, 
129  f.,  164,  249. 

Metempsychosis,  78. 

Method,  of  Socrates,  181  f. 

Method  of  education,  6;  in  primitive 
society,  16;  Egypt,  37  f . ;  Babylo- 
nio-Assyria,  50;  China,  71;  India, 
86;  Persia,  100;  Judaea,  129  ff. ; 
prehistoric  Greece,  148;  Sparta, 
150  ff.;  Athens,  164;  Rome,  of 
early  days,  241  f.;  ludi,  247;  gram¬ 
mar  schools,  258  f.;  rhetorical 
schools,  262  f. 

Micah,  quoted,  119. 

Military  class,  in  Egypt,  27  f . ;  Bab- 
ylonio-  Assyria,  44;  India,  80; 
Persia,  91,  98. 

Mishna,  116. 

Mnemonics,  among  Jews,  130. 

Monastic  schools,  294  f. 

Monitorial  system,  87  f. 

Monotheism,  among  Jews,  120. 

Musonius,  264  f. 

Mycenae,  140. 

Myron,  144. 


Natural  forces,  savages’  inability  to 
control,  12. 

Nature  peoples,  12,  18. 

Nazarites,  the,  120  (footnote). 

Neomazdeism,  221. 

Neoplatonism,  196,  221,  285. 

Neopythagoreanism,  221. 

New  Period,  education  at  Athens, 
170  ff. 

New  Testament,  289  f. 

Nicene  Creed,  290. 

Nicias,  144. 

Nile,  effect  on  Egypt,  23  f. ;  as  deity, 

25- 

Occupational  content,  106. 

Old  Period,  education  at  Athens,  157, 
169  f. 

Organization  of  education,  6;  in 
primitive  society,  14;  Egypt,  35  f. ; 
Babylonio- Assyria,  49  f. ;  Phoe¬ 
nicia,  54;  China,  63  ff. ;  India, 
83  f. ;  Persia,  98;  among  transi¬ 
tional  peoples,  107;  Jews,  125  ff. ; 
prehistoric  Greeks,  147;  in  Sparta, 
150  ff. ;  Athens,  157  ff. ;  Rome 
of  early  days,  2363.;  ludi,  246  f., 
251;  grammar  schools,  252  f. ;  cate¬ 
chumen  al  schools,  280;  catechet¬ 
ical  schools,  285. 

Organon,  The,  212. 

Origen,  284,  286. 

Ormazd,  94. 

Osiris,  25. 

Ostracism,  143. 

Paedagogus,  158,  250. 

Paedonomus,  150. 

Paedotribes,  160. 

Palaemon,  257. 

Palaestra,  159. 

Panchatantra,  84. 

Pancratium,  151,  166. 

Pantaenus,  286. 

Parishads,  84. 

Parochial  schools,  281. 

Parthenon,  144. 

Patria  potestas,  237. 

Patricians,  231. 


INDEX 


303 


Pedisequus,  250. 

Peloponnesian  war,  144  f. 

Penates,  240. 

Pentathlum,  160. 

Pericles,  143  f.,  179. 

Perioeci,  141,  150. 

Peripatetics,  the,  21 1,  216. 

Persia,  91  f.;  government,  92  f. ; 
religion  and  ethics,  93  ff.;  educa¬ 
tion,  98  ff. 

Persian  wars,  143. 

Phidias,  144. 

Philip  of  Macedon,  145. 

Philonism,  135  (footnote),  221,  276, 
283. 

Philosophical  schools,  215  ff. 
Philosophic  class,  in  The  Republic, 
188  f. 

Philosophy,  inadequate  to  check  vice, 
276  f. 

Phoenicia,  achievements,  52  f. ;  char¬ 
acter  of  people,  53  f. ;  education, 
54;  influence  upon  civilization,  54. 
Phonetic  alphabet,  53. 

Physicians,  in  Egypt,  33,  37;  Baby- 
lonio-Assyria,  47. 

Plato,  184  ff.,  215. 

Plebeians,  231. 

Plotinus,  284. 

Plotius,  260. 

Poetics,  The,  198,  208  (footnote). 
Politics,  The,  198,  203  ff. 
Polydemonism,  117. 

Polygnotus,  144. 

Practical  education,  of  savages,  13. 
Praeconinus,  253,  256. 

Presbyteri,  291  f. 

Present,  savages  tied  to  the,  17. 
Priestly  class.  See  Sacerdotal. 
Primitive  education,  purpose  of,  1 2  ff . ; 
organization  and  content,  14  ff.; 
method,  16;  results,  17  f. 

Primitive  society,  9  ff. 

Progress,  premedieval,  295  f. 
Prophets,  schools  of,  113,  119  ff.,  124  f. 
Protagoras,  174,  177. 

Ptah-hotep,  Aphorisms  of,  27. 

Puberty  rites,  15  f. 

Purpose  of  education,  5 ;  in  primitive 


society,  12  ff.;  Egypt,  34  f. ;  Bab- 
ylonio- Assyria,  49;  Phoenicia,  54; 
China,  62  f. ;  India,  83;  Persia, 
98 ;  among  transitional  peoples, 
105  f.;  Jews,  122  f. ;  prehistoric 
Greeks,  147;  in  Sparta,  149; 
Athens,  157;  Socrates,  181;  Plato, 
190  f. ;  Aristotle,  198;  Rome  in 
early  days,  236;  ludi,  246;  gram¬ 
mar  schools,  254;  rhetorical 
schools,  259  ff. ;  catechumenal 
schools,  279;  catechetical  schools, 
285 ;  monastic  schools,  294  f. 

Pyramids,  in  Egypt,  30  f. 

Pyrrho,  216. 

Pythagoras,  178  f.,  194. 

Quintilian,  233,  245  f.,  247,  249,  253, 
254,  255,  257,  261,  262,  266,  268. 

Re,  25. 

Rechabites,  the,  120  (footnote). 

Relative  mean,  of  Aristotle,  200  f. 

Religion,  in  primitive  society,  9  ff.; 
Egypt,  25  f. ;  Babylonio- Assyria, 
45  f. ;  Phoenicia,  53  f. ;  China, 
58  ff. ;  India,  78  ff. ;  Persia,  93  ff.; 
of  Jews,  117  ff. ;  Greeks,  152,  162, 
1 71;  Romans,  240  f.;  Christians, 
274  f.,  277  f. 

Renaissance,  296. 

Republic,  The,  185  ff. 

Restricted  ideals,  105  f. 

Results  of  education,  7;  in  primitive 
society,  16  ff.;  Egypt,  39  ff. ;  Bab¬ 
ylonio- Assyria,  50  f . ;  Phoenicia, 
54;  China,  73  ff. ;  India,  88  f. ; 
Persia,  101  f. ;  among  transitional 
peoples,  107  ff. ;  Jews,  133  ff.; 
in  Sparta,  155  ff. ;  Athens,  169  ff.; 
Socrates,  183  f. ;  Plato,  194  ff. ; 
Aristotle,  21 1  ff.;  early  days  of 
Rome,  242  f. ;  later  Rome,  269  f. 

Rhetorical  schools,  217  f.,  259  ff. 

Rhodes,  university  at,  219,  263. 

Rome,  history  of,  230  ff. ;  education 
in  early  days,  236  ff. ;  religion, 
239  ff. ;  influence  of  Greece  upon, 
243  ff.;  ludi,  246  ff.;  grammar 


304 


INDEX 


schools,  252  ff.;  rhetorical  schools, 
259  ff . ;  university,  263  f.;  effect 
of  education  upon  civilization, 
269  f.;  influence  of,  upon  Chris¬ 
tianity,  291  ff. 

Sacerdotal  class,  in  Egypt,  27;  Bab- 
ylonio-Assyria,  44;  India,  80; 
Persia,  94. 

Sacerdotal  organization,  107. 

Satraps,  93. 

Savages,  chief  characteristics.  See 
Primitive  society  and  Primitive 
education. 

Schoolrooms,  in  Egypt,  36;  Baby- 
lonio- Assyria,  50;  China,  64; 
India,  84;  Judaea,  125  ff.;  Athens, 
159  ff.,  165;  Rome,  251,  259. 

Science,  in  Egypt,  33;  Babylonio-As- 
syria,  46  f.;  Phoenicia,  53;  China, 
62;  India,  86;  among  the  Jews, 
126,  135;  prehistoric  Greeks,  147; 
in  Athens,  174;  Plato,  189;  Aris¬ 
totle,  198;  Alexandria,  221 ;  Rome, 
245;  rhetorical  schools,  261  f. ; 
university,  264. 

Scribes,  in  Egypt,  36  f.;  Babylonio- 
Assyria,  44;  among  Jews,  115  f., 
121. 

Seven  Liberal  Arts,  261,  295. 

Simon  ben  Shetach,  127. 

Skeptics,  the,  216. 

Smith,  Dr.  A.  H.,  quoted,  71,  73. 

Socrates,  180  ff. ;  method  of,  181  f. 

Sopherim,  116. 

Sophistae,  173  ff. ;  influence  of,  175  f. 

Sophocles,  144,  172. 

Sophronistes,  166. 

Sparta,  141  f.,  144  f-J  education, 
149  ff.;  effect  upon  civilization, 
i55  ff- 

Static  results,  107  f. 

Stilo,  253. 

Stoics,  the,  216. 

Subsidizing  of  education,  at  Rome, 
265  ff. 

Suetonius,  246,  259. 

Synagogues,  125  f. 


Tacitus,  246. 

Talmud ,  116. 

Taoism,  60. 

Teacher,  in  primitive  society,  1 7 ; 
Egypt,  38,  41;  Babylonio- Assyria, 
50;  China,  65,  71  ff.;  India,  87  f.; 
among  transitional  peoples,  107; 
Jews,  123  f.,  125  f.,  127,  131  f.;  in 
Sparta,  150;  Athens,  160,  161,  165, 
173  f.;  Rome,  247,  252  f.,  260, 
263,  265  ff. 

Tertullian,  287  f. 

Theban  supremacy,  145- 
Themistocles,  144- 

Theoretical  education,  of  savages,  15  f. 
Theseum,  144. 

Thorah,  112,  115,  116,  129. 
Thucydides,  144. 

Totemism,  10,  117. 

Traditions,  evolution  of,  3  f. 

Trial  and  error,  16. 

Twelve  Tables,  The,  231,  238,  247. 

Universities,  among  the  Greeks,  219  f.; 
the  Romans,  263  f. 

Varro,  233,  245,  256. 

Veda,  85. 

Vergil,  233,  256,  259,  268. 

Vestal  virgins,  240. 

Vice,  at  Rome,  234,  275  ff. 

Women,  in  primitive  society,  15; 
Egypt,  28;  Babylonio-Assyria,  45; 
China,  59;  India,  82;  Persia,  98; 
among  transitional  peoples,  106; 
the  Jews,  129;  in  Sparta,  154  f.; 
Athens,  1 68  f. ;  The  Republic,  190; 
The  Politics,  206;  Rome,  264  f.; 
Christianity,  275. 

Xenophon,  99  (footnote),  144,  i79- 

Zarathushtra,  94. 

Zend-Avesta,  97. 

Zeno,  216. 

Ziggurat,  47- 

Zoroaster.  See  Zarathushtra. 


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A  history  of  education  before  the  Middle 


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